Although software testing can determine the correctness of software under the assumption of some specific hypotheses (see the hierarchy of testing difficulty below), testing cannot identify all the defects within the software.	尽管软体测试能够在针对某些特定假设的预设情况下判定软体的正确性 (请见下方的测试难度层级)，但仍旧无法识别出软体内的所有缺陷。
Instead, it furnishes a criticism or comparison that compares the state and behavior of the product against test oracles—principles or mechanisms by which someone might recognize a problem.	软体测试反而会针对测试判定准则 (可用来找出问题的原则或机制) 比较产品的状态及行为，或是提出评论。
These oracles may include (but are not limited to) specifications, contracts, comparable products, past versions of the same product, inferences about intended or expected purpose, user or customer expectations, relevant standards, applicable laws, or other criteria.	这些判定准则可包含 (但不限于) 规格、契约、可相互比较的产品、同一项产品的过往版本、关于预定或预期目的的推论、使用者或客户的期望、相关标准、适用法规或是其他准则。
A primary purpose of testing is to detect software failures so that defects may be discovered and corrected.	测试的主要目的在于侦测出软体错误，以便找出并修正缺陷。
Testing cannot establish that a product functions properly under all conditions, but only that it does not function properly under specific conditions.	测试并无法确保产品能在所有环境条件下正常运作，仅能确知产品会在特定的环境条件下无法正常运作。
The scope of software testing often includes the examination of code as well as the execution of that code in various environments and conditions as well as examining the aspects of code: does it do what it is supposed to do and do what it needs to do.	软体测试的范围通常会包括程式码检测与检验该程式码在各种环境和条件下的执行情况，以及检验程式码的各个层面：其是否能做到该做且必须做到的事项。
In the current culture of software development, a testing organization may be separate from the development team.	在目前的软体研发文化中，专责测试的组织会和研发团队区分开来。
There are various roles for testing team members.	测试团队的成员身兼多职。
Information derived from software testing may be used to correct the process by which software is developed.	经由软体测试取得的资讯可用来修正软体的研发过程。
Every software product has a target audience.	每一项软体产品都有各自的目标受众。
For example, the audience for video game software is completely different from banking software.	例如，电玩游戏的受众就和银行软体的受众截然不同。
Therefore, when an organization develops or otherwise invests in a software product, it can assess whether the software product will be acceptable to its end users, its target audience, its purchasers and other stakeholders.	因此，组织能够在研发或投资软体产品时，评估其终端使用者、目标受众、购买者和其他利害关系人是否能接受该项软体产品。
Software testing aids the process of attempting to make this assessment.	软体测试能在尝试完成评估的过程中助上一臂之力。
Not all software defects are caused by coding errors.	并非所有软体缺陷都是因程式码错误所导致。
One common source of expensive defects is requirement gaps, i.e., unrecognized requirements that result in errors of omission by the program designer.	其中一个常见且代价昂贵的缺陷根源为需求差异，即程式设计者并未注意到且导致不慎省略掉的需求。
Requirement gaps can often be non-functional requirements such as testability, scalability, maintainability, performance, and security.	会产生差异的需求通常是非功能性需求，例如可测试性、可扩展性、可维护性、效能表现和安全性。
Software faults occur through the following processes.	软体故障会透过下列程序发生。
A programmer makes an error (mistake), which results in a defect (fault, bug) in the software source code.	程式设计师有所疏失 (犯错)，导致软体的原始码出现缺陷 (故障、漏洞)。
If this defect is executed, in certain situations the system will produce wrong results, causing a failure.	如果系统执行了这项缺陷，就会在某些状况下产生错误结果，导致故障失常。
Not all defects will necessarily result in failures.	并非所有缺陷一定都会导致故障失常。
For example, defects in the dead code will never result in failures.	例如在无作用的程式码中的缺陷就不会导致故障失常。
A defect can turn into a failure when the environment is changed.	当环境有所变动时，缺陷可能就会造成故障失常。
Examples of these changes in environment include the software being run on a new computer hardware platform, alterations in source data, or interacting with different software.	环境变动的例子包括在新的电脑硬体平台上执行软体、原始资料有所改变，或是与不同的软体产生互动。
A single defect may result in a wide range of failure symptoms.	单一缺陷可能会导致各种不同的故障征兆。
A fundamental problem with software testing is that testing under all combinations of inputs and preconditions (initial state) is not feasible, even with a simple product.	软体测试有个根本问题为无法实际结合各种输入内容及前置条件 (初始状态) 来进行测试，即便是简单的产品也难以实行。
This means that the number of defects in a software product can be very large and defects that occur infrequently are difficult to find in testing.	这表示软体产品中的缺陷数量可能极为庞大，且难以透过测试找出并未经常发生的缺陷。
More significantly, non-functional dimensions of quality (how it is supposed to be versus what it is supposed to do)—usability, scalability, performance, compatibility, reliability—can be highly subjective; something that constitutes sufficient value to one person may be intolerable to another.	其中更为显著的是，诸如可用性、可扩展性、效能表现、可相容性、可靠性等非功能性的品质构面 (预期样貌相对于预期功能) 可能具有高度主观差异—让某人认为具有充分价值的事物，可能会让另一个人感到难以忍受。
Software developers can't test everything, but they can use combinatorial test design to identify the minimum number of tests needed to get the coverage they want.	软体研发人员无法测试完所有项目，但是他们可以使用组合测试设计来确认达到预期覆盖范围所需的最少测试次数。
Combinatorial test design enables users to get greater test coverage with fewer tests.	组合测试设计能让使用者得以透过更少的测试次数达到更为宽广的测试覆盖范围。
Whether they are looking for speed or test depth, they can use combinatorial test design methods to build structured variation into their test cases.	无论他们是要寻求速战速决或是要测试深度，都可以在他们的测试案例中使用组合测试设计方式来打造出结构完整的变体。
A study conducted by NIST in 2002 reports that software bugs cost the U.S. economy $59.5 billion annually.	据美国国家标准暨技术研究院于 2002 年进行的研究报告指出，软体漏洞每年在美国耗费了 595 亿美元的经济收入。
More than a third of this cost could be avoided, if better software testing was performed.	如果能执行更优质的软体测试，就能免除超过三分之一的开销。
Outsourcing software testing because of costs is very common, with China, the Philippines and India being preferred destinations.	为了节省开销而将软体测试外包的情形十分常见，中国、菲律宾和印度均为首选目的地。
Software testing can be done by dedicated software testers.	软体测试可交由技巧娴熟的软体测试人员来进行。
Until the 1980s, the term "software tester" was used generally, but later it was also seen as a separate profession.	直到 1980 年代，「软体测试人员」一词曾被广泛使用，不过后来也被当成一项独立职业。
Regarding the periods and the different goals in software testing, different roles have been established, such as test manager, test lead, test analyst, test designer, tester, automation developer, and test administrator.	考量到软体测试过程中的不同阶段和目标，不同的的职务角色应运而生，例如测试经理、测试主管、测试分析师、测试设计师、测试人员、自动化研发人员及测试管理员等。
Software testing can also be performed by non-dedicated software testers.	软体测试也可以交由非专职的软体测试人员来执行。
Glenford J. Myers initially introduced the separation of debugging from testing in 1979.	Glenford J. Myers 于 1979 年初次将除错和测试区分开来。
Although his attention was on breakage testing ("A successful test case is one that detects an as-yet undiscovered error.") it illustrated the desire of the software engineering community to separate fundamental development activities, such as debugging, from that of verification.	尽管当初他是将注意力放在破损测试上 (「能侦测到尚未发现到的错误，才称得上是成功的测试。」)，却也说明了当时的软体工程师社群有意将基础软体开发活动 (比如除错) 与验证区分开来。
There are many approaches available in software testing.	软体测试有许多方法可以使用。
Reviews, walkthroughs, or inspections are referred to as static testing, whereas executing programmed code with a given set of test cases is referred to as dynamic testing.	审查 (review)、逐步审视 (walkthrough) 或检查 (inspection) 所指的都是静态测试，透过既定组合的测试用例来执行程式码则为动态测试。
Dynamic testing takes place when the program itself is run.	动态测试会在程式执行时进行。
Dynamic testing may begin before the program is 100% complete in order to test particular sections of code and are applied to discrete functions or modules.	动态测试可在程式百分之百编撰完成之前开始进行，借此测试程式码的特定区段以及套用到离散函数或模组的情形。
Typical techniques for these are either using stubs/drivers or execution from a debugger environment.	一般而言，用来进行这类测试的技术莫过于使用存根/驱动程式或是在除错工具的环境中执行。
Static testing involves verification, whereas dynamic testing also involves validation.	静态测试包含了验证程序，动态测试则包含了确认程序。
Passive testing means verifying the system behavior without any interaction with the software product.	被动测试即表示是在和软体产品没有任何互动的情形下验证系统行为。
Contrary to active testing, testers do not provide any test data but look at system logs and traces.	与主动测试相反，测试人员不会提供任何测试资料，只会查看系统记录档和运行轨迹。
They mine for patterns and specific behavior in order to make some kind of decisions.	他们会探寻其模式及特定行为以便做出某种决策。
This is related to offline runtime verification and log analysis.	这与离线运行时间验证和记录档分析相关。
Exploratory testing is an approach to software testing that is concisely described as simultaneous learning, test design and test execution.	探索式测试为软体测试的其中一种方式，简而言之即为同步学习、测试设计和测试执行。
Cem Kaner, who coined the term in 1984, defines exploratory testing as "a style of software testing that emphasizes the personal freedom and responsibility of the individual tester to continually optimize the quality of his/her work by treating test-related learning, test design, test execution, and test result interpretation as mutually supportive activities that run in parallel throughout the project."	Cem Kaner 于 1984 年创出「探索式测试」一词，将其定义为「强调个别测试人员的个人自由度以及责任的软体测试类别，藉由在测试专案进行的过程中同步探究与测试相关的学习、测试设计、测试执行及测试结果判读，彼此相辅相成进而持续提升其软体作业品质。」
Software testing methods are traditionally divided into white- and black-box testing.	传统的软体测试方法分为白箱测试和黑箱测试两种。
These two approaches are used to describe the point of view that the tester takes when designing test cases.	这两种方法分别形容了测试人员在设计测试用例时所采取的视角。
A hybrid approach called grey-box testing may also be applied to software testing methodology.	有一种名为灰箱测试的混合方法也会应用在软体测试中。
With the concept of grey-box testing—which develops tests from specific design elements—gaining prominence, this "arbitrary distinction" between black- and white-box testing has faded somewhat.	随着灰箱测试的概念 (藉由特定的设计元素发展出测试内容) 渐渐成为主流，将测试「武断区别」为黑箱和白箱的作法也逐渐不为人所用。
Black-box testing (also known as functional testing) treats the software as a "black box," examining functionality without any knowledge of internal implementation, without seeing the source code.	黑箱测试 (也称作功能性测试) 会将软体当成一个「黑箱」，在完全不知道其内部实作细节的状况下检测其功能性，也不会查看其原始码。
The testers are only aware of what the software is supposed to do, not how it does it.	测试人员只会注意该软体理应有何功能，而非其如何运作。
Black-box testing methods include: equivalence partitioning, boundary value analysis, all-pairs testing, state transition tables, decision table testing, fuzz testing, model-based testing, use case testing, exploratory testing, and specification-based testing.	黑箱测试方法内容包括：等价划分、边界值分析、全成对组合测试、状态变迁表、决策表测试、模糊测试、模型测试、使用案例测试、探索式测试和规格测试。
Specification-based testing aims to test the functionality of software according to the applicable requirements.	规格测试的目标在于根据软体适用的需求来测试其功能。
This level of testing usually requires thorough test cases to be provided to the tester, who then can simply verify that for a given input, the output value (or behavior), either "is" or "is not" the same as the expected value specified in the test case.	这一阶层的测试需要将完整的测试用例提供给测试人员， 好让他们可以直接就所给予的输入内容验证其输出值 (或行为)，看看该值与测试用例中叙明的预期值「相同」或「相异」。
Test cases are built around specifications and requirements, i.e., what the application is supposed to do.	测试用例会依据规格及需求而创造，也就是指该应用程式理应具有的功能。
It uses external descriptions of the software, including specifications, requirements, and designs to derive test cases.	测试用例会依据软体的外部描述 (包括规格、需求和设计) 来建构其内容。
These tests can be functional or non-functional, though usually functional.	这些测试可以是功能性或是非功能性，但通常还是以功能性居多。
Specification-based testing may be necessary to assure correct functionality, but it is insufficient to guard against complex or high-risk situations.	规格测试也许在确保功能正确方面不可或缺，却仍不足以防范复杂或高风险等情况。
One advantage of the black box technique is that no programming knowledge is required.	黑箱测试技术的一大优点在于它不需要程式编写方面的知识。
Whatever biases the programmers may have had, the tester likely has a different set and may emphasize different areas of functionality.	无论程式设计师可能会有怎样的偏误成见，测试人员或许会有不同的思考模式，也可能会把重点方在不同的功能区块。
On the other hand, black-box testing has been said to be "like a walk in a dark labyrinth without a flashlight." Because they do not examine the source code, there are situations when a tester writes many test cases to check something that could have been tested by only one test case or leaves some parts of the program untested.	尽管如此，黑箱测试向来被形容成是「走在黑漆漆的迷宫中，且不带手电筒」。因为测试人员不会检测原始码，所以会出现测试人员编写出许多测试用例来检查原本只需要单一用例就能测试完的项目，或是遗漏了程式中某些尚未测试的部分等情况。
This method of test can be applied to all levels of software testing: unit, integration, system and acceptance.	这类测试方法可以应用在所有阶层的软体测试，如：单元、整合、系统和接受度。
It typically comprises most if not all testing at higher levels, but can also dominate unit testing as well.	一般而言，该类测试大多以高阶测试为主，但也能够主导单元测试。
Component interface testing	元件介面测试
Component interface testing is a variation of black-box testing, with the focus on the data values beyond just the related actions of a subsystem component.	元件介面测试为黑箱测试的变化版，重点仅放在子系统元件相关动作背后的资料数值上。
The practice of component interface testing can be used to check the handling of data passed between various units, or subsystem components, beyond full integration testing between those units.	元件介面测试可在不同单元之间的完整整合测试之外，实际用来检查资料在不同单元或子系统间传递的处理情形。
The data being passed can be considered as "message packets" and the range or data types can be checked, for data generated from one unit, and tested for validity before being passed into another unit.	传递中的资料可称为「讯息封包」，且可检查从其中一个单元产生的资料型态范围，以及在资料传递到另一个单元之前测试其效度。
One option for interface testing is to keep a separate log file of data items being passed, often with a timestamp logged to allow analysis of thousands of cases of data passed between units for days or weeks.	介面测试的其中一个选项为分别储存各个传递资料项目的记录档，通常会附上时间戳记以便分析在数天或数周内传递的上千笔资料实例。
Tests can include checking the handling of some extreme data values while other interface variables are passed as normal values.	测试内容可包括检查某些极端资料值在系统将其它介面变数当成标准值传递时的处理情形。
Unusual data values in an interface can help explain unexpected performance in the next unit.	介面中不寻常的资料值可协助解释下一个单元未如预期的效能表现。
The aim of visual testing is to provide developers with the ability to examine what was happening at the point of software failure by presenting the data in such a way that the developer can easily find the information she or he requires, and the information is expressed clearly.	目视检测的目标在于让开发人员得以在软体发生故障当下，透过呈现内容清楚明了的资料来轻松找到他/她所需的资讯。
At the core of visual testing is the idea that showing someone a problem (or a test failure), rather than just describing it, greatly increases clarity and understanding.	目视检测的核心想法为让对方直接看见问题 (或是测试失败) 而非只是形容问题，可大幅增进其明确及理解程度。
Visual testing, therefore, requires the recording of the entire test process – capturing everything that occurs on the test system in video format.	因此，目视检测需要将完整的测试过程记录下来，以影片格式捕捉在测试系统上发生的一切状况。
Output videos are supplemented by real-time tester input via picture-in-a-picture webcam and audio commentary from microphones.	输出的影片会辅以子母画面实时记录测试人员的输入过程，以及透过麦克风记录的评论音讯内容。
Visual testing provides a number of advantages.	目视检测有诸多优点。
The quality of communication is increased drastically because testers can show the problem (and the events leading up to it) to the developer as opposed to just describing it and the need to replicate test failures will cease to exist in many cases.	因为测试人员可以直接让开发人员看见问题 (以及造成问题的事件缘由)，所以相对于只形容问题本身，沟通的品质会急遽增长，而且在许多案例当中将不再需要重建测试失败的过程。
The developer will have all the evidence she or he requires of a test failure and can instead focus on the cause of the fault and how it should be fixed.	开发人员会得到所有他/她需要用来厘清测试失败的证据，能够转而将重点放在其中的因果关系以及如何修正问题。
Ad hoc testing and exploratory testing are important methodologies for checking software integrity, because they require less preparation time to implement, while the important bugs can be found quickly.	随机测试和探索式测试为用来检查软体完整性的重要方法，因为这两种测试方法在实作上需要的准备时间较短，可快速找到重大漏洞。
In ad hoc testing, where testing takes place in an improvised, impromptu way, the ability of the tester(s) to base testing off documented methods and then improvise variations of those tests can result in more rigorous examination of defect fixes.	随机测试会以不按牌理出牌的方式进行测试，测试人员能够使用非经明文规定的测试方法，然后那些随兴变化而出的测试可以让之后的缺陷修正检验更加严谨。
However, unless strict documentation of the procedures are maintained, one of the limits of ad hoc testing is lack of repeatability.	然而，除非整体流程有用文字详细记录下来，否则难以重复进行会是随机测试的一大限制。
Grey-box testing (American spelling: gray-box testing) involves having knowledge of internal data structures and algorithms for purposes of designing tests while executing those tests at the user, or black-box level.	灰箱测试包括为了设计测试内容了解内部资料结构及演算法，同时于使用者端或黑箱阶层执行测试。
The tester will often have access to both "the source code and the executable binary." Grey-box testing may also include reverse engineering (using dynamic code analysis) to determine, for instance, boundary values or error messages.	测试人员通常能够存取「原始码及可执行的二进位制档案」。灰箱测试可能也会包括透过逆向工程 (使用动态程式码分析) 来加以判定，例如判定边界值或错误讯息。
Manipulating input data and formatting output do not qualify as grey-box, as the input and output are clearly outside of the "black box" that we are calling the system under test.	操作输入资料与编排输出格式并不足以称为灰箱测试，因为其输入及输出内容均明显位于我们称之为「黑箱」的测试中系统之外。
This distinction is particularly important when conducting integration testing between two modules of code written by two different developers, where only the interfaces are exposed for the test.	这样的区别，在针对由两位不同的开发人员编写出来的两组程式码进行整合测试时尤为重要，因为在测试过程中仅会看见介面。
By knowing the underlying concepts of how the software works, the tester makes better-informed testing choices while testing the software from outside.	在了解了软体运作的基本概念之后，测试人员可以在透过外观测试软体时做出更加明智的抉择。
Typically, a grey-box tester will be permitted to set up an isolated testing environment with activities such as seeding a database.	一般而言，进行灰箱测试的测试人员有权为填充资料库等动作设定一个独立的测试环境。
The tester can observe the state of the product being tested after performing certain actions such as executing SQL statements against the database and then executing queries to ensure that the expected changes have been reflected.	测试人员可在进行某些特定动作 (如针对资料库执行 SQL 陈述) 之后观察产品的测试状态，接着执行查询以确保预期的变更已修改完成。
Grey-box testing implements intelligent test scenarios, based on limited information.	灰箱测试可根据有限的资讯实行智慧测试情境。
This will particularly apply to data type handling, exception handling, and so on.	这尤其可以应用在资料型态处理、例外处理...等等。
Broadly speaking, there are at least three levels of testing: unit testing, integration testing, and system testing.	概括而言，测试阶层至少有三个：单元测试、整合测试及系统测试。
However, a fourth level, acceptance testing, may be included by developers.	然而，开发人员可能会纳入接受度测试，列为第四阶层。
This may be in the form of operational acceptance testing or be simple end-user (beta) testing, testing to ensure the software meets functional expectations.	其形式可能会是可操作的接受度测试或单纯的终端使用者 (测试版) 测试，用来确保软体符合功能方面的预期。
Tests are frequently grouped into one of these levels by where they are added in the software development process, or by the level of specificity of the test.	测试经常会依据在软体开发过程中加入的时间点来划分为其中一个阶层，或是依据该项测试所指定的阶层。
The first people to inhabit the area now known as Sydney were indigenous Australians having migrated from northern Australia and before that from southeast Asia.	第一批来到现今雪梨地区居住的先民为之前从东南亚地区迁徙至澳洲北部的澳洲原住民。
Radiocarbon dating suggests human activity first started to occur in the Sydney area from around 30,735 years ago.	据放射性碳定年法推测，雪梨地区出现的人类活动最早可追溯至约 30,735 年前。
However, numerous Aboriginal stone tools were found in Western Sydney's gravel sediments that were dated from 45,000 to 50,000 years BP, which would indicate that there was human settlement in Sydney earlier than thought.	然而，在雪梨西部的砾石沉积层中发现了许多原住民族的石制工具，年代推定为距今四万五千年至五万年前，这表示人类定居雪梨的时间远比原先认为的还要久远。
The first meeting between the native people and the British occurred on 29 April 1770 when Lieutenant James Cook landed at Botany Bay on the Kurnell Peninsula and encountered the Gweagal clan.	原住民族与英国人于 1770 年 4 月 29 日首次碰面，当时英国海军上尉 James Cook 在科内尔半岛 (Kurnell Peninsula) 的博特尼湾 (Botany Bay) 登陆，遇见了格威盖尔 (Gweagal) 部族。
He noted in his journal that they were confused and somewhat hostile towards the foreign visitors.	他在自己的日志中提到那些原住民看起来一脸困惑，而且对于外来访客颇有敌意。
Cook was on a mission of exploration and was not commissioned to start a settlement.	Cook 当时肩负探索任务，并未受托在此建立根据地。
He spent a short time collecting food and conducting scientific observations before continuing further north along the east coast of Australia and claiming the new land he had discovered for Britain.	他花了一小段时间采集食物并进行科学观察，接着继续沿着澳洲东岸往北而行，然后宣告自己发现的这片新天地为英国属地。
Prior to the arrival of the British there were 4,000 to 8,000 native people in Sydney from as many as 29 different clans.	在英国人抵达之前，雪梨当地有四千至八千名原住民，分属多达二十九个不同部族。
The earliest British settlers called the natives Eora people.	最早在此定居的英国人称呼当地的原住民为依奥拉 (Eora) 族人。
"Eora" is the term the indigenous population used to explain their origins upon first contact with the British.	「依奥拉」为原住民族在首次接触到英国人时，用来解释他们的先祖起源的词汇。
Its literal meaning is "from this place".Sydney Cove from Port Jackson to Petersham was inhabited by the Cadigal clan.	直译为「来自此处」之意。从雪梨湾的杰克森港到彼得汉这一带地区，当初居住着卡地哥 (Cadigal) 部族。
The principal language groups were Darug, Guringai, and Dharawal.	主要使用的语言为达鲁格语 (Darug)、古林凯语 (Gurigai) 及塔拉瓦尔语 (Dharawal)。
The earliest Europeans to visit the area noted that the indigenous people were conducting activities such as camping and fishing, using trees for bark and food, collecting shells, and cooking fish.	最早造访此地的欧洲人曾提到当地的原住民族会进行野营及钓鱼等活动，并且会采集树皮和树上的食物、捕捞贝类以及煮鱼为食。
Britain—before that, England—and Ireland had for a long time been sending their convicts across the Atlantic to the American colonies.	英国 (早年称为英格兰) 和爱尔兰曾经有很长一段时间会远渡大西洋，将国内的受刑人运送到美洲的殖民地。
That trade was ended with the Declaration of Independence by the United States in 1776.	该运送受刑人的行为随着美国于 1776 年发表《独立宣言》而终止。
Britain decided in 1786 to found a new penal outpost in the territory discovered by Cook some 16 years earlier.	英国于 1786 年决定在 Cook 约莫 16 年前发现的领土另寻流放犯人之处。
Captain Philip led the First Fleet of 11 ships and about 850 convicts into Botany Bay on 18 January 1788, though deemed the location unsuitable due to poor soil and a lack of fresh water.	Philip 舰长于 1788 年 1 月 18 日率领第一舰队共 11 艘船，载运了约 850 名受刑人来到博特尼湾，不过该地区因为土壤贫脊且欠缺淡水资源，并不适合流放犯人。
He travelled a short way further north and arrived at Sydney Cove on 26 January 1788.	于是他往北边续行了一小段路，于 1788 年 1 月 26 日抵达雪梨湾。
This was to be the location for the new colony.	这里就此成为新殖民地的所在之处。
Phillip described Port Jackson as being "without exception the finest harbour in the world".	Philip 形容杰克森港为「无庸置疑的世界第一良港」。
The colony was at first to be titled "New Albion" (after Albion, another name for Great Britain), but Phillip decided on "Sydney".	该殖民地一开始以「新阿尔比恩」(New Albion) 为名 (阿尔比恩为当时大英帝国的代称)，不过 Philip 后来决定命名为「雪梨」。
The official proclamation and naming of the colony happened on 7 February 1788.	其后于 1788 年 2 月 7 日由官方正式公告为殖民地的名称。
Lieutenant William Dawes produced a town plan in 1790 but it was ignored by the colony's leaders.	海军上尉 William Dawes 于 1790 年拟定了一份城镇规划，却遭当时的殖民地领导团队忽视。
Sydney's layout today reflects this lack of planning.	雪梨现今的都市配置样貌显见其缺乏规划。
Between 1788 and 1792, 3,546 male and 766 female convicts were landed at Sydney—many "professional criminals" with few of the skills required for the establishment of a colony. The food situation reached crisis point in 1790.	在 1788 年至 1792 年间，共有 3,546 名男性及 766 名女性受刑人来到雪梨—其中有许多「术有专精的犯人」具有建立殖民地所需的些许技能。 1790 年，当地的食物供应情况来到了紧要关头。
Early efforts at agriculture were fraught and supplies from overseas were scarce.	早年的农业发展困难重重，来自海外的货物供应也十分稀缺。
From 1791 on, however, the more regular arrival of ships and the beginnings of trade lessened the feeling of isolation and improved supplies.	然而，到了 1791 年之后，定期往返的船只越来越多。后来随着贸易开通，孤立感越来越淡，供应状况也有所改善。
The colony was not founded on the principles of freedom and prosperity.	该处殖民地当初并非是以自由及繁荣做为创建原则。
Maps from this time show no prison buildings; the punishment for convicts was transportation rather than incarceration, but serious offences were penalised by flogging and hanging.	这时候的地图上还没出现牢房建筑。对于受刑人来说，搭船还比监禁更像处罚，不过重罪要犯还是会受到鞭刑及吊刑等处分。
Phillip sent exploratory missions in search of better soils and fixed on the Parramatta region as a promising area for expansion and moved many of the convicts from late 1788 to establish a small township, which became the main centre of the colony's economic life, leaving Sydney Cove only as an important port and focus of social life.	Phillip 派遣探索团队寻找更优质的土壤，并且认定帕拉玛塔 (Parramatta) 为具有发展潜力的地区。接着从 1788 年年末开始将许多受刑人迁移至此，开始建立小型城镇，并在之后成为该殖民地的经济生活重心，让雪梨湾单纯成为一座重要港湾，并聚焦于社交生活。
Poor equipment and unfamiliar soils and climate continued to hamper the expansion of farming from Farm Cove to Parramatta and Toongabbie, but a building programme, assisted by convict labour, advanced steadily.	设备破旧加上对于当地的土壤及气候并不熟悉，在在妨碍着从农场湾 (Farm Cove) 到帕拉玛塔和图恩加比 (Toongabbie) 一带的农业拓展，不过在受刑人付出劳力协助之下，有一项建设计画得以稳步向前。
Officers and convicts alike faced starvation as supplies ran low and little could be cultivated from the land.	因为供应量短缺且土地难以栽种作物，官员和受刑人同样都面临着饥荒处境。
The region's indigenous population was also suffering.	当地的原住民族同样也叫苦连天。
It is estimated that half of the native people in Sydney died during the smallpox epidemic of 1789.	据估计，在 1789 年的天花疫情当中，雪梨的原民人口有半数丧命。
Enlightened for his age, Phillip's personal intent was to establish harmonious relations with local Aboriginal people and try to reform as well as discipline the convicts of the colony.	Philip 随着年龄增长而有所顿悟，意欲尽一己之力与当地的原住民族建立和谐友好的关系，并试图改革纪律与规范殖民地上的受刑人。
Phillip and several of his officers – most notably Watkin Tench – left behind journals and accounts which tell of immense hardships during the first years of settlement.	Philip 和麾下数名军官 (其中最有名气的是 Watkin Tench) 留下了多本日志和帐款记录，可从中得知他们在建立根据地的第一年遇到多么艰困的处境。
Part of Macquarie's effort to transform the colony was his authorisation for convicts to re-enter society as free citizens.	昔日总督 Macquarie 曾透过自身权力允许受刑人以自由公民身分重新融入社会，努力让殖民地有所转变。
Roads, bridges, wharves, and public buildings were constructed using convict labour and by 1822 the town had banks, markets, and well-established thoroughfares.	在受刑人齐心劳力之下，道路、桥梁、码头及公共建筑纷纷建设完成。到了 1822 年，镇上已有银行、市场和规划完善的道路系统。
Parramatta Road was opened in 1811, which is one of Sydney's oldest roads and Australia's first highway between two cities – Sydney CBD and Parramatta.	帕拉玛塔公路于 1811 年开通，为雪梨历史最为悠久的一条公路，也是澳洲首条连结雪梨中心商业区和帕拉玛塔的城际公路。
Conditions in the colony were not conducive to the development of a thriving new metropolis, but the more regular arrival of ships and the beginnings of maritime trade (such as wool) helped to lessen the burden of isolation.	虽然殖民地的环境条件难以发展出繁华的大都会，但随着定期往返的航班越来越多以及海上贸易开展 (比如羊毛)，孤绝于世的陈重负担也随之缓解。
Between 1788 and 1792, convicts and their jailers made up the majority of the population; in one generation, however, a population of emancipated convicts who could be granted land began to grow.	在 1788 年至 1792 年间，受刑人及监狱管理员为当地的主要人口。然而到了下一代，期满释放且获得土地的受刑人人口开始增长。
These people pioneered Sydney's private sector economy and were later joined by soldiers whose military service had expired, and later still by free settlers who began arriving from Britain.	这些人是雪梨私人企业的先驱，退伍军人随后也加入私营行列，接着是渐渐开始从英国迁居到这里的自由移民。
Governor Phillip departed the colony for England on 11 December 1792, with the new settlement having survived near starvation and immense isolation for four years.	Philip 总督于 1792 年 12 月 11 日自殖民地返回英国，当时这个新的根据地已经在濒临饥荒和庞大的孤绝感中度过了四年。
Between 1790 and 1816, Sydney became one of the many sites of the Australian Frontier Wars, a series of conflicts between the Kingdom of Great Britain and the resisting Indigenous clans.	在 1790 年至 1816 年间，雪梨成为澳洲边界战争 (Australian Frontier Wars) 的兵家必争之地，大英帝国和原民反抗军之间冲突不断。
In 1790, when the British established farms along the Hawkesbury River, an Aboriginal leader Pemulwuy resisted the Europeans by waging a guerrilla-style warfare on the settlers in a series of wars known as the Hawkesbury and Nepean Wars which took place in western Sydney.	1790 年，当英国人沿着霍克斯布里 (Hawkesbury) 河开辟田地时，原民部族领袖 Pemulwuy 对沿岸居民展开一系列游击战，借此抵御欧洲人入侵。这一系列战事发生在雪梨西部，名为「霍尼战争」(Hawkesbury and Nepean Wars)。
He raided farms until Governor Macquarie dispatched troops from the British Army 46th Regiment in 1816 and ended the conflict by killing 14 Indigenous Australians in a raid on their campsite.	他在沿岸农田大肆破坏，直到 Macquarie 总督于 1816 年派遣英军第 46 团的部队前来为止。该部队大举进犯原民部落，杀害了 14 名澳洲原住民，并就此为双方冲突画下句点。
In 1804, Irish convicts led the Castle Hill Rebellion, a rebellion by convicts against colonial authority in the Castle Hill area of the British colony of New South Wales.	1804 年，爱尔兰裔的受刑人发动「堡垒山起义」(Castle Hill Rebellion )，带领受刑人反抗堡垒山地区的殖民地官署。堡垒山位于新南威尔斯的英国殖民地上。
The first and only major convict uprising in Australian history suppressed under martial law, the rebellion ended in a battle fought between convicts and the colonial forces of Australia at Rouse Hill.	这场澳洲史上第一起也是唯一一起受刑人揭竿起义的事件，随后让戒严法压了下去。最后一场受刑人对抗殖民政府军的战役发生在澳洲的劳斯山 (Rouse Hill)。
The Rum Rebellion of 1808 was the only successful armed takeover of government in Australian history, where the Governor of New South Wales, William Bligh, was ousted by the New South Wales Corps under the command of Major George Johnston, who led the rebellion.	1808 年的「兰姆酒暴动」(Rum Rebellion) 为澳洲史上唯一一起成功以武装占领政府机关的动乱事件。当时的新南威尔斯总督 William Bligh 在暴动领导人 George Johnston 少校的命令之下，遭新南威尔斯军驱逐出境。
Conflicts arose between the governors and the officers of the Rum Corps, many of which were land owners such as John Macarthur.	兰姆军的军官和高层人员之间的冲突越演越烈，其中有许多人是当时的地主，比如 John Macarthur。
Early Sydney was molded by the hardship suffered by early settlers.	早年的雪梨是由先民胼手胝足一砖一瓦打造出来。
In the early years, drought and disease caused widespread problems, but the situation soon improved.	那些年，干旱和疾病泛滥成灾，但是情况很快就获得改善。
The military colonial government was reliant on the army, the New South Wales Corps.	殖民地的军政府仰赖着当地的新南威尔斯军团。
Macquarie served as the last autocratic Governor of New South Wales, from 1810 to 1821 and had a leading role in the social and economic development of Sydney which saw it transition from a penal colony to a budding free society.	Macquarie 为新南威尔斯的末代专制总督，于 1810 年至 1821 年的任期当中主导雪梨的社会及经济发展，看着它逐渐从流放犯人的殖民地转变成刚刚萌芽的自由社会。
He established public works, a bank, churches, and charitable institutions and sought good relations with the Aborigines.	他建造了许多公共工程、银行、教堂和慈善机构，并企图与原住民建立良好关系。
Over the course of the 19th-century Sydney established many of its major cultural institutions.	雪梨有许多重要的文化机构都是在十九世纪落成启用。
Governor Lachlan Macquarie's vision for Sydney included the construction of grand public buildings and institutions fit for a colonial capital.	Lachlan Macquarie 总督对于雪梨的愿景包括了为这座殖民之都建造规模宏大的公共建筑及相关机构。
Macquarie Street began to take shape as a ceremonial thoroughfare of grand buildings.	麦觉理街 (Macquarie Street) 开始成为两旁林立着雄伟建筑的礼宾大道。
The year 1840 was the final year of convict transportation to Sydney, which by this time had a population of 35,000.	1840 年为运送受刑人至雪梨的最后一年，当时人口已经达到三万五千人。
Gold was discovered in the colony in 1851 and with it came thousands of people seeking to make money.	1851 年，有人在这处殖民地发现金矿，随后有上千人怀抱着发财梦来此淘金。
Sydney's population reached 200,000 by 1871 and during this time the city entered a period of prosperity which was reflected in the construction of grand edifices.	雪梨人口于 1871 年来到二十万大关，城市的繁华程度可从此时建设的雄伟大厦略知一二。
Temperance coffee palaces, hotels as well as other civic buildings such as libraries and museums were erected in the city.	无酒精咖啡宫、旅馆以及其他如图书馆和博物馆等民间建筑，如雨后春笋般林立在城市之中。
Demand for infrastructure to support the growing population and subsequent economic activity led to massive improvements to the city's railway and port systems throughout the 1850s and 1860s.	在 1850 年代及 1860 年代，为支持人口增长以及随之蓬勃发展的经济活动，对于基础建设的需求表现在城市铁路及港口交通系统的大规模改善上。
After a period of rapid growth, further discoveries of gold in Victoria began drawing new residents away from Sydney towards Melbourne in the 1850s, which created a strong rivalry between Sydney and Melbourne that still exists to this day.	经历过一段快速成长期之后，有人在澳洲的维多利亚省进一步挖掘出金矿，吸引新一代居民于 1850 年代自雪梨转往墨尔本而去，造就雪梨与墨尔本之间的瑜亮情结，延续至今。
Nevertheless, Sydney exceeded Melbourne's population in the early twentieth century and remains Australia's largest city.	然而，雪梨的人口早在二十世纪早期就超过了墨尔本，至今仍然是澳洲第一大城。
Following the depression of the 1890s, the six colonies agreed to form the Commonwealth of Australia.	接着在 1890 年代的经济萧条时期，澳洲土地上的六个殖民地同意共组澳大利亚联邦。
Sydney's beaches had become popular seaside holiday resorts, but daylight sea bathing was considered indecent until the early 20th century.	雪梨的海滩成为假日看海踏浪的休闲好去处，不过当时仍将日光浴视为不雅行为，要到二十世纪早期才正式解禁。
Under the reign of Queen Victoria federation of the six colonies occurred on 1 January 1901.	在维多利亚女皇的统治之下，由六个殖民地合组的联邦政府于 1901 年 1 月 1 日正式成立。
Sydney, with a population of 481,000, then became the state capital of New South Wales.	当时人口为 481,000 人的雪梨便成为新南威尔斯州的首都。
The Great Depression of the 1930s had a severe effect on Sydney's economy, as it did with most cities throughout the industrial world.	1930 年代的经济大萧条重创了当时工业世界大多数的城市，雪梨的经济也随之受到严重打击。
For much of the 1930s up to one in three breadwinners was unemployed.	在 1930 年代努力养家糊口的老百姓中，最多每三个人就有一个人失业。
Construction of the Sydney Harbour Bridge served to alleviate some of the effects of the economic downturn by employing 1,400 men between 1924 and 1932.	建于 1924 年至 1932 年间的雪梨港湾大桥创造了 1,400 个就业机会，一定程度减缓了经济衰退所带来的影响。
The population continued to boom despite the Depression, having reached 1 million in 1925.	尽管处于经济萧条时期，人口依旧持续增长，并于 1925 年来到百万大关。
The city had one of the largest tram networks in the British Empire until it was dismantled in 1961.	在大英帝国于 1961 年分崩离析之前，这座城市拥有帝国境内规模最大的路面电车路网。
When Britain declared war on Germany in 1939, Australia also entered.	当英国于 1939 年向德国宣战时，澳洲也一同参战。
During the war Sydney experienced a surge in industrial development to meet the needs of a wartime economy.	战争期间，为了因应战时经济需求，雪梨的工业急速发展。
Far from mass unemployment, there were now labour shortages and women becoming active in male roles.	此时不但没有大量失业问题，反而还出现劳力短缺，于是女性也开始可以担任男性的职务角色。
Sydney's harbour was attacked by the Japanese in May and June 1942 with a direct attack from Japanese submarines with some loss of life.	雪梨港湾曾于 1942 年的 5 月和 6 月遭到日军潜艇直接攻击，造成多人丧生。
Households throughout the city had built air raid shelters and performed drills.	城市里的家家户户都纷纷建造了防空避难室并进行演习。
Consequently, Sydney experienced population growth and increased cultural diversification throughout the post-war period.	结果，雪梨的人口在战后持续增长，文化也越来越缤纷多元。
The people of Sydney warmly welcomed Queen Elizabeth II in 1954 when the reigning monarch stepped onto Australian soil for the first time to commence her Australian Royal Tour.	雪梨民众曾于 1954 年热烈欢迎女皇伊莉莎白二世大驾光临。那是女皇首度踏上澳洲的土地，展开澳洲皇家之旅。
Having arrived on the Royal Yacht Britannia through Sydney Heads, Her Majesty came ashore at Farm Cove.	女皇陛下搭上皇家游艇「不列颠尼亚号」(Britannia) 穿越雪梨角 (Sydney Heads)，抵达农场湾。
There were 1.7 million people living in Sydney at 1950 and almost 3 million by 1975.	雪梨的居住人口于 1950 年达到一百七十万，并于 1975 年逼近三百万。
The Australian government launched a large scale multicultural immigration program.	澳洲政府此时开始实施大规模的多元文化移民计画。
New industries such as information technology, education, financial services and the arts have risen.	诸如资讯科技、教育、金融服务及艺术等新兴产业接连开始蓬勃发展。
Sydney's iconic Opera House was opened in 1973 by Her Majesty.	雪梨远近驰名的歌剧院于 1973 年由女皇陛下亲自主持开幕仪式。
A new skyline of concrete and steel skyscrapers swept away much of the old lowrise and often sandstone skyline of the city in the 1960s and 1970s, with Australia Square being the tallest building in Sydney from its completion in 1967 until 1976 and is also notable for being the first skyscraper in Australia.	在 1960 年代及 1970 年代，由水泥及钢骨摩天大楼构成的崭新天际线取代了绝大部分由低矮砂岩平房构成的天际线。于 1967 年完工启用的澳洲广场大楼 (Australia Square) 为当时至 1976 年间的第一高楼，也因为是澳洲的第一座摩天大楼而享誉国际。
This prolific growth of contemporary high-rise architecture was put in check by heritage laws in the 1990s onwards, which prevent demolition of any structure deemed historically significant.	蓬勃发展的当代高楼层建筑于 1990 年代之后纳入遗产法规的管辖范围，避免有任何具有历史意义的建筑结构遭到拆毁。
Since the 1970s Sydney has undergone a rapid economic and social transformation.	从 1970 年代开始，雪梨历经了急遽的经济及社会变迁。
As a result, the city has become a cosmopolitan melting pot.	这座城市就此成为一座犹如大熔炉般的国际大都会。
To relieve congestion on the Sydney Harbour Bridge, the Sydney Harbour Tunnel opened in August 1992.	为了纾解雪梨港湾大桥的车流量，雪梨港湾隧道于 1992 年 8 月全线开通。
The 2000 Summer Olympics were held in Sydney and became known as the "best Olympic Games ever" by the President of the International Olympic Committee.	2000 年的夏季奥运于雪梨举行，且让国际奥委会主席盛赞为「有史以来最好的一届奥运会」。
Sydney has maintained extensive political, economic and cultural influence over Australia as well as international renown in recent decades.	雪梨在最近这几十年间一直是澳洲的政治、经济及文化重镇，且享誉国际。
Following the Olympics, the city hosted the 2003 Rugby World Cup, the APEC Australia 2007 and Catholic World Youth Day 2008, led by Pope Benedict XVI.	在奥运过后，雪梨接连主办了 2003 年的世界杯橄榄球赛、2007 年的澳洲亚太经济合作会议 (APEC)，以及 2008 年由教皇本笃十六世主持的天主教世界青年日活动。
Sydney is a coastal basin with the Tasman Sea to the east, the Blue Mountains to the west, the Hawkesbury River to the north, and the Woronora Plateau to the south.	雪梨为一处海岸盆地，东临塔斯曼海 (Tasman Sea)，西侧为蓝山山脉 (Blue Mountains)，北方有霍克斯布里河 (Hawkesbury River) 流过，南边则是沃伦诺拉高原 (Woronora Plateau)。
The inner city measures 25 square kilometres (10 square miles), the Greater Sydney region covers 12,367 square kilometres (4,775 square miles), and the city's urban area is 1,687 square kilometres (651 square miles) in size.	内城区占地 25 平方公里 (约 10 平方英里)，大雪梨地区涵盖了 12,367 平方公里 (约 4,775 平方英里)，市区大小则为 1,687 平方公里 (约 651 平方英里)。
Sydney spans two geographic regions.	雪梨横跨了两个地理分区。
The Cumberland Plain lies to the south and west of the Harbour and is relatively flat.	坎伯兰平原 (Cumberland Plain) 位处港湾的西侧及南侧，地势相对平坦。
The Hornsby Plateau is located to the north and is dissected by steep valleys.	港湾北侧为霍恩斯比高原 (Hornsby Plateau)，由陡峭的山谷分割开来。
The flat areas of the south were the first to be developed as the city grew.	南侧的平坦地区为这座城市的开发起源地。
Dutch explorer Abel Tasman sighted New Zealand in 1642 and named it Staten Land "in honour of the States General" (Dutch parliament).	荷兰探险家 Abel Tasman 曾在 1642 年看见纽西兰，并将其命名为「荷兰议会之地」(Statem Land)，以此向荷兰国家议会 (State General) 致敬。
He wrote, "it is possible that this land joins to the Staten Land but it is uncertain", referring to a landmass of the same name at the southern tip of South America, discovered by Jacob Le Maire in 1616.	他写道：「这片土地有可能是荷兰议会之地的一部分，但尚未确定」。这里所提到的「荷兰议会之地」是指 Jacob Le Maire 于 1616 年在南美洲南端发现的一处同名土地。
In 1645, Dutch cartographers renamed the land Nova Zeelandia after the Dutch province of Zeeland.	1645 年，荷兰的制图师团队挪用了荷兰本地的西兰省 (Zeeland) 之名，将该处土地重新命名为「新西兰」(Nova Zeelandia)。
British explorer James Cook subsequently anglicised the name to New Zealand.	英国探险家 James Cook 随后以英文重新拼写，更名为「纽西兰」(New Zealand)。
Aotearoa (pronounced /ˌaʊtɛəˈroʊ.ə/; often translated as "land of the long white cloud") is the current Māori name for New Zealand.	「Aotearoa」(发音为 /ˌaʊtɛəˈroʊ.ə/，通常译为「悠长白云之地」) 为纽西兰目前的毛利语名称。
It is unknown whether Māori had a name for the whole country before the arrival of Europeans, with Aotearoa originally referring to just the North Island.	目前并不清楚毛利人是否曾在欧洲人抵达之前就命名了这整座国家，而「Aotearoa」原先只是用来指称北岛。
Māori had several traditional names for the two main islands, including Te Ika-a-Māui (the fish of Māui) for the North Island and Te Waipounamu (the waters of greenstone) or Te Waka o Aoraki (the canoe of Aoraki) for the South Island.	毛利人曾经有好几个用来称呼这两座主要岛屿的传统名称，包括用来称呼北岛的 Te Ika-a-Māui (毛伊鱼岛) 和用来称呼南岛的 Te Waipounamu (碧石水岸) 或 Te Waka o Aoraki (库克山下的独木舟)。
Early European maps labelled the islands North (North Island), Middle (South Island) and South (Stewart Island / Rakiura).	早年的欧洲地图曾标示出北岛 (即今日的北岛)、中岛 (今日的南岛) 和南岛 (今日的斯图尔特岛)。
In 1830, mapmakers began to use "North" and "South" on their maps to distinguish the two largest islands and by 1907 this was the accepted norm.	1830 年，制图师开始在地图上使用「北岛」和「南岛」来区分两座大岛，随后到了 1907 年便普遍为世人所接受。
The New Zealand Geographic Board discovered in 2009 that the names of the North Island and South Island had never been formalised, and names and alternative names were formalised in 2013.	纽西兰地理委员会 (New Zealand Geographic Board) 于 2009 年发现「北岛」和「南岛」其实从未列为正式名称，其后于 2013 年正式确立了官方名称及别名。
This set the names as North Island or Te Ika-a-Māui, and South Island or Te Waipounamu.	从此之后，北岛可称为「北岛」或「Te Ika-a-Māui」，南岛则为「南岛」或「Te Waipounamu」。
For each island, either its English or Māori name can be used, or both can be used together.	两座岛屿都可以分别使用英文名称或毛利语别名，或是并行使用。
New Zealand was one of the last major landmasses settled by humans.	纽西兰是人类到了近代才正式定居的主要陆地区域之一。
Radiocarbon dating, evidence of deforestation and mitochondrial DNA variability within Māori populations suggest New Zealand was first settled by Eastern Polynesians between 1250 and 1300, concluding a long series of voyages through the southern Pacific islands.	据放射性碳定年法、曾大范围砍伐森林的证据和毛利族人的粒线体基因变异情形推断，纽西兰的第一代居民可能是在西元 1250 年至 1300 年间途经诸多南太平洋海岛，最后来此定居的东玻里尼西亚人 (Eastern Polynesian)。
Over the centuries that followed, these settlers developed a distinct culture now known as Māori.	在之后的数百年间，这群先民逐渐发展出独特的文化体系，即现今所知的毛利文化。
The population was divided into iwi (tribes) and hapū (subtribes) who would sometimes cooperate, sometimes compete and sometimes fight against each other.	岛上的居民分成许多 iwi (部落) 和 hapū (分支部落)，有时会彼此合作，有时则会相互竞争，有的时候还会集体械斗。
At some point a group of Māori migrated to Rēkohu, now known as the Chatham Islands, where they developed their distinct Moriori culture.	有一群毛利族人曾在某个时间点迁居至 Rēkohu (即今日的查塔姆群岛)，随后发展出独树一格的莫里奥里 (Moriori) 文化。
The Moriori population was all but wiped out between 1835 and 1862, largely because of Taranaki Māori invasion and enslavement in the 1830s, although European diseases also contributed.	但是莫里奥里族人却在 1835 年至 1862 年间惨遭灭族，主因为塔拉纳基地区 (Taranki) 的毛利族人于 1830 年代大举入侵并以当地居民为奴，来自欧洲的疫病也是其中一部分原因。
In 1862 only 101 survived, and the last known full-blooded Moriori died in 1933.	到了 1862 年，仅剩下 101 人存活。目前已知最后一位血统纯正的莫里奥里族人则于 1933 年逝世。
The first Europeans known to have reached New Zealand were Dutch explorer Abel Tasman and his crew in 1642.	据目前所知，第一批抵达纽西兰的欧洲人是于 1642 年踏上这块土地的荷兰探险家 Abel Tasman 和同行的队员。
In a hostile encounter, four crew members were killed and at least one Māori was hit by canister shot.	在登岛时的流血冲突中，有四名队员遭到杀害，至少有一名毛利族人遭受枪击。
Europeans did not revisit New Zealand until 1769 when British explorer James Cook mapped almost the entire coastline.	欧洲人直到 1769 年才再度造访纽西兰，当时的英国探险家 James Cook 在地图上绘制了近乎完整的海岸线。
Following Cook, New Zealand was visited by numerous European and North American whaling, sealing and trading ships.	在 Cook 之后，有许多欧洲和北美地区的捕鲸船、货运船和商船造访了纽西兰。
They traded European food, metal tools, weapons and other goods for timber, Māori food, artefacts and water.	他们用欧洲的食物、金属器具、武器和其他货物来此交易木材、毛利人的食物、工艺品和水资源。
The introduction of the potato and the musket transformed Māori agriculture and warfare.	在引进马铃薯和滑膛枪 (musket) 之后，毛利族人的农业和作战能力有所转变。
Potatoes provided a reliable food surplus, which enabled longer and more sustained military campaigns.	马铃薯提供了可靠稳定的食粮补给，得以支撑时间更长且更为持久的军事活动，
The resulting intertribal Musket Wars encompassed over 600 battles between 1801 and 1840, killing 30,000–40,000 Māori.	这导致了各个部落在 1801 年至 1840 年间发生了滑膛枪战争，大小战役超过 600 场，造成 30,000 至 40,000 名毛利族人丧生。
From the early 19th century, Christian missionaries began to settle New Zealand, eventually converting most of the Māori population.	基督教的传教士从十九世纪早期就开始定居纽西兰，最终让大多数的毛利族人受洗入教。
The Māori population declined to around 40% of its pre-contact level during the 19th century; introduced diseases were the major factor.	相较于与外人接触之前，毛利族人的人口数量在十九世纪当中减少了四成，外来的疫病为主要因素。
In 1788 Captain Arthur Phillip assumed the position of Governor of the new British colony of New South Wales which according to his commission included New Zealand.	1788 年，Arthur Philip 船长在英国的新殖民地 (即新南威尔斯) 就任总督一职，其管辖范围包括了纽西兰。
The British Government appointed James Busby as British Resident to New Zealand in 1832 following a petition from northern Māori.	1832 年，英国政府在收到北部毛利族人的请愿之后，委派 James Busby 就任英国驻纽西兰大使。
In 1835, following an announcement of impending French settlement by Charles de Thierry, the nebulous United Tribes of New Zealand sent a Declaration of Independence to King William IV of the United Kingdom asking for protection.	1835 年，在 Charles de Thierry 公开宣告即将在此建立法属根据地之后，纽西兰的联合部落不知该如何是好，于是递交了一份独立声明给英皇威廉四世，寻求军事庇护。
Ongoing unrest, the proposed settlement of New Zealand by the New Zealand Company (which had already sent its first ship of surveyors to buy land from Māori) and the dubious legal standing of the Declaration of Independence prompted the Colonial Office to send Captain William Hobson to claim sovereignty for the United Kingdom and negotiate a treaty with the Māori.	鉴于风波尚未平息，原先打算在纽西兰建立根据地的纽西兰公司 (之前已经派出第一批调查团队向毛利族人购买土地) 以及独立宣言暧昧不明的法律地位促使英国殖民地办公室指派 William Hobson 队长前往宣示英国主权，并与毛利族人进行条约谈判。
The Treaty of Waitangi was first signed in the Bay of Islands on 6 February 1840.	1840 年 2 月 6 日，《怀唐伊条约》(The Treaty of Waitangi) 首度于岛湾地区 (Bay of Islands) 进行签署。
In response to the New Zealand Company's attempts to establish an independent settlement in Wellington and French settlers purchasing land in Akaroa, Hobson declared British sovereignty over all of New Zealand on 21 May 1840, even though copies of the Treaty were still circulating throughout the country for Māori to sign.	为回应纽西兰公司在威灵顿 (Wellington) 建设独立根据地的企图，以及法裔居民在阿卡罗阿 (Akaroa) 购买土地一事，Hobson 于 1840 年 5 月 21 日公开宣示英国具有纽西兰全境的主权，尽管当时的条约复本还在各毛利部族之间传递以完成签署。
With the signing of the Treaty and declaration of sovereignty the number of immigrants, particularly from the United Kingdom, began to increase.	有了条约签署及主权宣示之后，移民人数 (尤其是来自英国的移民) 开始增加。
New Zealand, still part of the colony of New South Wales, became a separate Colony of New Zealand on 1 July 1841.	当时还隶属于新南威尔斯的纽西兰，后来于 1841 年 7 月 1 日独自成为直属英国的纽西兰殖民地。
Armed conflict began between the Colonial government and	1843 年，殖民政府开始和
Māori in 1843 with the Wairau Affray over land and disagreements over sovereignty.	毛利族人为了土地和主权纠纷发生武装冲突，史称「怀劳之争」(Wairau Affray)。
These conflicts, mainly in the North Island, saw thousands of Imperial troops and the Royal Navy come to New Zealand and became known as the New Zealand Wars.	这些冲突事件主要发生在北岛，接着有上千名帝国军队和皇家海军进驻纽西兰，逐渐演变成知名的「纽西兰战争」(New Zealand Wars)。
Following these armed conflicts, large amounts of Māori land was confiscated by the government to meet settler demands.	在这些武装冲突过后，为因应殖民需求，有大量的毛利族人土地遭到政府没收。
The colony gained a representative government in 1852 and the first Parliament met in 1854.	1852 年，纽西兰成立了代议政府，并于 1854 首度召开议会。
In 1856 the colony effectively became self-governing, gaining responsibility over all domestic matters other than native policy.	1856 年，纽西兰成为具有实质效力的自治区，负责掌管除原住民政策之外的所有境内事务。
(Control over native policy was granted in the mid-1860s.)	(原住民政策的管理权责则于 1860 年代中期获准)
Following concerns that the South Island might form a separate colony, premier Alfred Domett moved a resolution to transfer the capital from Auckland to a locality near Cook Strait.	因为担忧南岛成为独立的殖民地，时任总理的 Alfred Domett 决定将首都从奥克兰迁至库克海峡 (Cook Strait) 附近。
Wellington was chosen for its central location, with Parliament officially sitting there for the first time in 1865.	威灵顿因位居中央而雀屏中选，议会于 1865 年首度在该地正式开议。
In 1891 the Liberal Party came to power as the first organised political party.	1891 年，自由党 (Liberal Party) 以第一个具有组织规章的政党之姿取得政权。
The Liberal Government, led by Richard Seddon for most of its period in office, passed many important social and economic measures.	自由党政府执政期间，大多由 Richard Seddon 担任政府领导人，通过了许多重要的社会及经济措施相关法案。
In 1893 New Zealand was the first nation in the world to grant all women the right to vote and in 1894 pioneered the adoption of compulsory arbitration between employers and unions.	1893 年，纽西兰成为全球第一个将投票权授予所有女性的国家，并于 1894 年成为采用强制仲裁处理劳资纠纷的先驱。
In 1907, at the request of the New Zealand Parliament, King Edward VII proclaimed New Zealand a Dominion within the British Empire, reflecting its self-governing status.	1907 年，在纽西兰议会的请求之下，英皇爱德华七世宣布纽西兰成为大英帝国的自治领 (Dominion)，以反映其自治现况。
In 1947 the country adopted the Statute of Westminster, confirming that the British Parliament could no longer legislate for New Zealand without the consent of New Zealand.	1947 年，纽西兰政府采纳了《西敏法令》(Statute of Westminister)，确认英国议会不可在未经纽西兰同意下为纽西兰制定任何法规。
Early in the 20th century, New Zealand was involved in world affairs, fighting in the First and Second World Wars and suffering through the Great Depression.	纽西兰于二十世纪早期参与了许多国际事务，包括参战第一次及第二次世界大战，并且在经济大萧条时期困苦度日。
The depression led to the election of the First Labour Government and the establishment of a comprehensive welfare state and a protectionist economy.	经济大萧条让纽西兰工党首度赢得大选，建立了全方位的福利国家制度及以保护主义为首的经济体制。
New Zealand experienced increasing prosperity following the Second World War and Māori began to leave their traditional rural life and move to the cities in search of work.	纽西兰在二战结束后迎来荣景，毛利族人也开始离开传统的乡间生活，前往都市寻求工作机会。
A Māori protest movement developed, which criticised Eurocentrism and worked for greater recognition of Māori culture and of the Treaty of Waitangi.	批判欧洲中心主义的毛利族抗争运动此时应运而生，戮力于让更多人认识毛利族人的文化以及《怀唐伊条约》。
In 1975, a Waitangi Tribunal was set up to investigate alleged breaches of the Treaty, and it was enabled to investigate historic grievances in 1985.	1975 年，怀唐伊委员会 (Waitangi Tribunal) 正式成立，负责调查条约中疑似侵害他人权利的部分条文，并于 1985 年获准调查历史上的种种恩怨情仇。
The government has negotiated settlements of these grievances with many iwi, although Māori claims to the foreshore and seabed have proved controversial in the 2000s.	政府与许多部落就过去的恩怨达成和解，不过毛利族人于 2000 年后对于当地海岸及海床声称的主权仍有诸多争议。
New Zealand is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary democracy, although its constitution is not codified.	纽西兰为实行内阁制的君主立宪国家，不过其宪法并未正式编成法典。
Elizabeth II is the Queen of New Zealand and thus the head of state.	英国女皇伊莉莎白二世为现今纽西兰的国家元首。
The Queen is represented by the governor-general, whom she appoints on the advice of the prime minister.	总督为女皇的职务代理人，会先由总理提名，再由女皇亲自任命。
The governor-general can exercise the Crown's prerogative powers, such as reviewing cases of injustice and making appointments of ministers, ambassadors and other key public officials, and in rare situations, the reserve powers (e.g. the power to dissolve parliament or refuse the royal assent of a bill into law).	总督可行使皇室赋予的特权，诸如审视冤案、任命部会首长、大使及其他重要的政府官员，以及在罕见的情况下动用其储备权力 (例如解散国会或拒绝让皇室同意的法案完成立法程序)。
The powers of the monarch and the governor-general are limited by constitutional constraints and they cannot normally be exercised without the advice of ministers.	君主及总督的权力均受宪法规范，一般来说必须先征询总理意见才能行使。
The New Zealand Parliament holds legislative power and consists of the Queen and the House of Representatives.	纽西兰国会具有立法权，由女皇及众议院所组成。
It also included an upper house, the Legislative Council, until this was abolished in 1950.	国会体制中曾有专职为立法委员会的上议院，直到于 1950 年遭到废除为止。
The supremacy of parliament over the Crown and other government institutions was established in England by the Bill of Rights 1689 and has been ratified as law in New Zealand.	国会的至高权力在皇室及其他政府机构之上，其法源依据为英国于 1689 年颁布的《权利法案》(Bill of Rights)，后来由纽西兰政府批准入法。
The House of Representatives is democratically elected and a government is formed from the party or coalition with the majority of seats.	众议院经民主选举产生，然后由掌握过半席次的政党或联盟组建政府。
If no majority is formed, a minority government can be formed if support from other parties during confidence and supply votes is assured.	如果没有任一政党或联盟取得过半席次，可在具有信任基础且不影响选票权益的前提下取得其他政党团体的支持，组建少数政府。
The governor-general appoints ministers under advice from the prime minister, who is by convention the parliamentary leader of the governing party or coalition.	总督可任命由总理提名的部会首长。依照惯例，总理为掌握国会多数席次的执政党或执政联盟的领导人。
Cabinet, formed by ministers and led by the prime minister, is the highest policy-making body in government and responsible for deciding significant government actions.	内阁由各部会首长组成，由总理负责领导，为政府体制中负责制定政策的最高权力机构，负责为政府做出重大决策。
Members of Cabinet make major decisions collectively, and are therefore collectively responsible for the consequences of these decisions.	阁员会集体做出重要决策，也因此会集体负责其决策后果。
A parliamentary general election must be called no later than three years after the previous election.	国会普选必须在前一任期开始后的三年内举行。
Almost all general elections between 1853 and 1993 were held under the first-past-the-post voting system.	在 1853 年至 1993 年间的所有普选均采用领先者当选 (first-past-the-post) 做为票选制度。
Since the 1996 election, a form of proportional representation called mixed-member proportional (MMP) has been used.	从 1996 年的选举开始改用结合了政党比例代表的混合制 (mixed-member proportional，简称 MMP)。
Under the MMP system, each person has two votes; one is for a candidate standing in the voter's electorate and the other is for a party.	在 MMP 票选制度下，每一位选民都有两张票，一张投给选区内的政党候选人，另一张票则是投给政党。
Since the 2014 election, there have been 71 electorates (which include seven Māori electorates in which only Māori can optionally vote), and the remaining 49 of the 120 seats are assigned so that representation in parliament reflects the party vote, with the threshold that a party must win at least one electorate or 5% of the total party vote before it is eligible for a seat.	自 2014 年的选举开始，全国划分为 71 个选区 (其中包括 7 个只有毛利族人可以投票的专属选区)，总共 120 席国会议员中剩下的 49 席则会按照政党得票比例依序分配给各个政党。任一政党必须至少赢得一个选区，或是得票率超过总政党票数的 5% 才能取得席次分配资格。
Elections since the 1930s have been dominated by two political parties, National and Labour.	自 1930 年代的选举以来，几乎都是两大政党 (国家党和工党) 的天下。
Between March 2005 and August 2006, New Zealand became the first country in the world in which all the highest offices in the land—head of state, governor-general, prime minister, speaker and chief justice—were occupied simultaneously by women.	在 2005 年 3 月至 2006 年 8 月期间，纽西兰成为全球第一个所有政府首长均同时由女性担任 (包括国家元首、总督、总理、发言人和首席大法官) 的国家。
The current prime minister is Jacinda Ardern, who has been in office since 26 October 2017.	现任总理为 Jacinda Ardern，于 2017 年 10 月 26 日走马上任。
She is the country's third female prime minister.	她是纽西兰史上第三位女总理。
New Zealand's judiciary, headed by the chief justice, includes the Supreme Court, Court of Appeal, the High Court, and subordinate courts.	纽西兰的司法机关以首席大法官为首，下辖最高法院、上诉法院、高等法院和初等法院。
Judges and judicial officers are appointed non-politically and under strict rules regarding tenure to help maintain judicial independence.	法官和司法官员均为非政治任命，其任期受到严格法律规范，以协助维护司法独立。
This theoretically allows the judiciary to interpret the law based solely on the legislation enacted by Parliament without other influences on their decisions.	理论上，这样会让司法机关得以单纯依照国会所制定的法律来诠释相关条文，在决策过程中不会受到其他影响。
New Zealand is identified as one of the world's most stable and well-governed states.	纽西兰是全球公认政局最稳定且治理表现最为良好的国家。
As at 2017, the country was ranked fourth in the strength of its democratic institutions, and first in government transparency and lack of corruption.	2017 年，纽西兰的民主政治实力排行第四，政府透明程度及清廉程度则稳居第一。
A 2017 Human Rights Report by the U.S. Department of State noted that the government generally respected the rights of individuals, but voiced concerns regarding the social status of the Māori population.	美国国务院于 2017 年发表的《人权报告》(Human Rights Report) 中提到纽西兰政府能普遍尊重每一位民众的个人权利，但也对于毛利族人的社会地位表达关切。
New Zealand ranks highly for civic participation in the political process, with 77% voter turnout during recent elections, compared to an OECD average of 69%.	纽西兰的公民政治参与度名列前茅，最近几次选举的投票率平均达到七成七，相较于经济合作暨发展组织 (OECD) 成员国的平均值仅达六成九。
Early colonial New Zealand allowed the British Government to determine external trade and be responsible for foreign policy.	早年仍处于殖民时期的纽西兰会让英国政府决定海外贸易及外交政策。
The 1923 and 1926 Imperial Conferences decided that New Zealand should be allowed to negotiate its own political treaties and the first commercial treaty was ratified in 1928 with Japan.	在 1923 年至 1926 年间，帝国会议决定开放让纽西兰自行协商政治条约，并于 1928 年与日本正式签署第一份商业条约。
On 3 September 1939 New Zealand allied itself with Britain and declared war on Germany with Prime Minister Michael Joseph Savage proclaiming, "Where she goes, we go; where she stands, we stand."	1939 年 9 月 3 日，纽西兰与英国结盟，共同向德国宣战。当时的总理 Michael Joseph 曾公开宣告：「我们愿随女皇前行，愿随女皇力抗强敌」。
In 1951 the United Kingdom became increasingly focused on its European interests, while New Zealand joined Australia and the United States in the ANZUS security treaty.	1951 年，英国开始日益关注在欧陆国家之间的利弊得失，此时纽西兰已经加入由澳洲和美国主导的澳纽美安全保障条约 (ANZUS security treaty)。
The influence of the United States on New Zealand weakened following protests over the Vietnam War, the refusal of the United States to admonish France after the sinking of the Rainbow Warrior, disagreements over environmental and agricultural trade issues and New Zealand's nuclear-free policy.	美国对于纽西兰造成的影响，弱化了之后反越战、反对美国在彩虹勇士号沉船后责怪法国，以及针对环境、农业交易及反核政策等议题表达反对意见的抗争力道。
Despite the United States' suspension of ANZUS obligations the treaty remained in effect between New Zealand and Australia, whose foreign policy has followed a similar historical trend.	尽管美国暂时搁置了 ANZUS 条约中明定的义务，该项条约仍然在纽澳双方之间具有实质效力，两者的外交政策也依循着相似的历史趋势。
Close political contact is maintained between the two countries, with free trade agreements and travel arrangements that allow citizens to visit, live and work in both countries without restrictions.	这两个国家向来在政治上合作无间，并共同签署了多项自由贸易及旅游协定，让彼此的公民能够在两国之间随意旅游、居住与工作，不受任何拘束。
In 2013 there were about 650,000 New Zealand citizens living in Australia, which is equivalent to 15% of the resident population of New Zealand.	到了 2013 年。大约有六十五万名纽西兰公民住在澳洲，相当于纽西兰常住人口总数的一成五。
New Zealand has a strong presence among the Pacific Island countries.	纽西兰在太平洋岛国之间的地位举足轻重。
A large proportion of New Zealand's aid goes to these countries and many Pacific people migrate to New Zealand for employment.	纽西兰的对外援助有一大部分给了这些岛国，而且有许多太平洋岛国的居民会为了就业机会迁居至纽西兰。
Permanent migration is regulated under the 1970 Samoan Quota Scheme and the 2002 Pacific Access Category, which allow up to 1,100 Samoan nationals and up to 750 other Pacific Islanders respectively to become permanent New Zealand residents each year.	1970 年的《萨摩亚移民配额方案》(Samoan Quota Scheme) 及 2002 年的《太平洋岛国移民签证分类制度》(Pacific Access Category) 分别规范了国外移民永久居留的相关事宜，每年最多开放让 1,100 名萨摩亚国民及 750 名其他岛国的公民成为纽西兰的永久居民。
A seasonal workers scheme for temporary migration was introduced in 2007 and in 2009 about 8,000 Pacific Islanders were employed under it.	适合短期移民的季节性工作签证计画则于 2007 年开始实行，到了 2009 年已经有大约 8,000 名太平洋岛国民众透过此计画受雇工作。
A regional power, New Zealand is involved in the Pacific Islands Forum, the Pacific Community, Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations Regional Forum (including the East Asia Summit).	纽西兰身为区域强国，接连参与了太平洋岛国论坛 (Pacific Islands Forum)、太平洋共同体 (the Pacific Community)、亚太经济合作会议 (Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation) 以及东协区域论坛 (Association of Southeast Asian Nations Regional Forum) 和论坛中的东亚高峰会 (the East Asia Summit)。
New Zealand is a member of the United Nations, the Commonwealth of Nations and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), and participates in the Five Power Defence Arrangements.	纽西兰为联合国以及经济合作暨发展组织 (OECD) 的成员国，此外也参与了《五国联防协议》(Five Power Defence Arrangements)。
In computing, a printer is a peripheral device which makes a persistent representation of graphics or text on paper.	在使用电脑时，印表机是能够让图像及文字重现于纸上的一项电脑周边设备。
While most output is human-readable, bar code printers are an example of an expanded use for printers.	尽管大多数的输出项目都是人类能够阅读理解的内容，条码印表机却展现出印表机更为广泛的用途。
The first computer printer designed was a mechanically driven apparatus by Charles Babbage for his difference engine in the 19th century; however, his mechanical printer design was not built until 2000.	第一台电脑印表机为以机械驱动的仪器设备，由 Charles Babbage 于十九世纪为了自己的差分机 (difference engine) 所设计而成。然而，他的机械印表机设计却直到西元 2000 年才付诸实现。
The first electronic printer was the EP-101, invented by Japanese company Epson and released in 1968.	第一台电子印表机为 EP-101，由日本的爱普生 (Epson) 公司所发明，并于 1968 年正式亮相。
The first commercial printers generally used mechanisms from electric typewriters and Teletype machines.	第一批商用印表机一般而言都是运用电动打字机及电传打字机的机械原理。
The demand for higher speed led to the development of new systems specifically for computer use.	为因应更高的速度需求，开始出现专门为电脑使用所设计的新系统。
In the 1980s there were daisy wheel systems similar to typewriters, line printers that produced similar output but at much higher speed, and dot matrix systems that could mix text and graphics but produced relatively low-quality output.	到了 1980 年代，相继出现与打字机相仿的菊轮系统 (daisy wheel system)、能够以更高速度输出相似内容的行式印表机 (line printer)，以及能够结合文字及图像，但输出品质不甚理想的点阵图系统 (dot matrix system)。
The plotter was used for those requiring high quality line art like blueprints.	绘图机 (plotter) 则是专门用来绘制如建筑蓝图等要求高品质的线条图。
The introduction of the low-cost laser printer in 1984 with the first HP LaserJet, and the addition of PostScript in next year's Apple LaserWriter, set off a revolution in printing known as desktop publishing.	第一台 HP LaserJet 系列印表机于 1984 上市，开始出现价格低廉的雷射印表机。隔年，苹果公司推出附加了 PostScript 程式语言的 LaserWriter 印表机，掀起了如今称为「桌上出版」的印刷技术革命。
Laser printers using PostScript mixed text and graphics, like dot-matrix printers, but at quality levels formerly available only from commercial typesetting systems.	使用 PostScript 语法的雷射印表机能够像点阵图印表机那样结合文字和图像，却能拥有之前只能靠商用打字机系统达到的品质水准。
By 1990, most simple printing tasks like fliers and brochures were now created on personal computers and then laser printed; expensive offset printing systems were being dumped as scrap.	到了 1990 年，如宣传单和手册等十分简单的印刷作业，都能透过个人电脑设计排版，然后用雷射印表机列印出来。昂贵的平版印刷系统顿时被弃如敝屣。
The HP Deskjet of 1988 offered the same advantages as a laser printer in terms of flexibility, but produced somewhat lower quality output (depending on the paper) from much less expensive mechanisms.	于 1988 年推出的 HP DeskJet 系列印表机和雷射印表机同样享有灵活精巧等优点，却能透过更加低廉的机械运作方式产出品质还不算太差 (取决于纸张材质) 的输出内容。
Inkjet systems rapidly displaced dot matrix and daisy wheel printers from the market.	喷墨印刷系统迅速取代了市面上的点阵图及菊轮印表机。
By the 2000s high-quality printers of this sort had fallen under the $100 price point and became commonplace.	到了西元 2000 年之后，这类高品质的印表机售价跌破百元美金，成为日常设备。
The rapid update of internet email through the 1990s and into the 2000s has largely displaced the need for printing as a means of moving documents, and a wide variety of reliable storage systems means that a "physical backup" is of little benefit today.	从 1990 年代到 2000 年后，网际网路的电子邮件系统日新月异，成为搬移文件档案的新方法，大幅取代了印刷需求，再加上有各式各样安全可靠的储存系统，「实体备份」如今不再具有优势。
Even the desire for printed output for "offline reading" while on mass transit or aircraft has been displaced by e-book readers and tablet computers.	即便是在大众运输工具或飞机上「离线阅读」纸本印刷品的欲望，也已经让电子书阅读器和平板电脑取而代之。
Today, traditional printers are being used more for special purposes, like printing photographs or artwork, and are no longer a must-have peripheral.	如今，传统印表机更常运用在列印照片或艺术作品等特殊目的，不再是必备的电脑周边设备。
Starting around 2010, 3D printing became an area of intense interest, allowing the creation of physical objects with the same sort of effort as an early laser printer required to produce a brochure.	3D 列印技术大约从 2010 年开始发展，并逐渐成为让众人备感兴趣的领域。 3D 列印能够像早期的雷射印表机在列印手册那样，轻松列印出实体物品。
These devices are in their earliest stages of development and have not yet become commonplace.	这些装置都还在初步研发阶段，尚未普及化。
Personal printers are primarily designed to support individual users, and may be connected to only a single computer.	个人印表机主要是用来支援个人使用者，仅能连接到一台电脑上。
These printers are designed for low-volume, short-turnaround print jobs, requiring minimal setup time to produce a hard copy of a given document.	这些印表机都是专为数量少且周期短的列印工作所设计，只需要花点时间安装设定就能产出所输入文件的纸本复本。
However, they are generally slow devices ranging from 6 to around 25 pages per minute (ppm),	然而这些印表机一般来说速度都不快，每分钟大约可列印 6 至 25 页，
and the cost per page is relatively high.	而且每一页的平均成本都相对高了些。
However, this is offset by the on-demand convenience.	不过，其随插即用的便利性倒是能弥补这些缺点。
Some printers can print documents stored on memory cards or from digital cameras and scanners.	有些印表机可以列印储存在记忆卡中或是透过数位相机和扫瞄器撷取的文件档案。
Networked or shared printers are "designed for high-volume, high-speed printing".	可连接网路或进行共享的印表机则是「专门用来进行大量且高速的列印作业」。
They are usually shared by many users on a network and can print at speeds of 45 to around 100 ppm.	这类印表机通常会透过网路连线共享给多位使用者，列印速度大约为每分钟 45 至 100 页。
The Xerox 9700 could achieve 120 ppm.	Xerox 9700 印表机可达到每分钟 120 页。
A virtual printer is a piece of computer software whose user interface and API resembles that of a printer driver, but which is not connected with a physical computer printer.	虚拟印表机为一款电脑软体，其使用者介面及应用程式介面均类似印表机的驱动程式，只不过并未连接到实体的电脑印表机。
A virtual printer can be used to create a file which is an image of the data which would be printed, for archival purposes or as input to another program, for example to create a PDF or to transmit to another system or user.	虚拟印表机可以用来把所要列印的资料图档另建新档封存，或是输入到另一个程式中，例如建立 PDF 档或是传送至另一个系统或另一位使用者。
A barcode printer is a computer peripheral for printing barcode labels or tags that can be attached to, or printed directly on, physical objects.	条码印表机为用来列印条码贴标或附加标签的电脑周边设备，也可以直接列印在实体物品上。
Barcode printers are commonly used to label cartons before shipment, or to label retail items with UPCs or EANs.	条码印表机通常会用来在运送货物之前贴标纸箱，或是将零售货品贴上通用产品代码 (UPC) 或欧洲商品条码 (EAN) 等标签。
A 3D printer is a device for making a three-dimensional object from a 3D model or other electronic data source through additive processes in which successive layers of material (including plastics, metals, food, cement, wood, and other materials) are laid down under computer control.	3D 印表机是用来将 3D 模型或其他来源的电子资料制成立体物件的装置。该装置会在电脑操控下，透过叠加程序一层一层铺上列印材料 (包括塑胶、金属、食物、水泥、木头和其他材料)。
It is called a printer by analogy with an inkjet printer which produces a two-dimensional document by a similar process of depositing a layer of ink on paper.	列印过程就像是喷墨印表机在纸上喷洒上一层墨水，进而列印出一份 2D 文件。
The choice of print technology has a great effect on the cost of the printer and cost of operation, speed, quality and permanence of documents, and noise.	选择不同的列印技术，对于印表机和列印操作的费用成本、速度、品质、文件的耐久程度以及噪音都有着相当大的影响。
Some printer technologies do not work with certain types of physical media, such as carbon paper or transparencies.	有些印表机的列印技术不适用于某些类型的实体媒介，比如厚纸板或是透明幻灯片。
A second aspect of printer technology that is often forgotten is resistance to alteration: liquid ink, such as from an inkjet head or fabric ribbon, becomes absorbed by the paper fibers, so documents printed with liquid ink are more difficult to alter than documents printed with toner or solid inks, which do not penetrate below the paper surface.	印表机技术有另一个经常让人忘却的特点，那就是它能防止更动：从喷嘴或色带喷洒而出的液体墨水会让纸纤维吸收进去。因此，相较于使用碳粉或固体墨水列印出来但墨迹并未穿透纸张表面的文件，使用液体墨水列印的文件会更加难以更动内容。
Cheques can be printed with liquid ink or on special cheque paper with toner anchorage so that alterations may be detected.	支票可以使用液体墨水列印，或是使用碳粉打印在特殊的支票用纸上，如此便可检测出任何更动之处。
The machine-readable lower portion of a cheque must be printed using MICR toner or ink.	支票可以用机器识读的下半部必须使用 MICR 碳粉或墨水列印。
Banks and other clearing houses employ automation equipment that relies on the magnetic flux from these specially printed characters to function properly.	银行和其他票据交换所会采用自动侦测设备，唯有感应到这些特殊印刷字元的磁通量才能正常运作。
The following printing technologies are routinely found in modern printers:	下列均为会在现代印表机中经常看见的列印技术：
A laser printer rapidly produces high quality text and graphics.	雷射印表机快速列印出高品质的文字和图像。
As with digital photocopiers and multifunction printers (MFPs), laser printers employ a xerographic printing process but differ from analog photocopiers in that the image is produced by the direct scanning of a laser beam across the printer's photoreceptor.	如同数位影印机和多功能印表机 (MFP)，雷射印表机也采用了静电印刷程序。静电印刷与类比式影印机的不同之处，在于它是使用雷射光柱在印表机的感光接受器上横扫而过，直接扫描并生成图像。
Another toner-based printer is the LED printer which uses an array of LEDs instead of a laser to cause toner adhesion to the print drum.	另一款使用碳粉的印表机为 LED 印表机，用一整排 LED 灯来取代雷射光束，让碳粉吸附在列印磁鼓上。
Inkjet printers operate by propelling variably sized droplets of liquid ink onto almost any sized page.	喷墨印表机是藉由将不同大小的液体墨点喷射在纸张上来完成列印，几乎各种大小的纸张都适用。
They are the most common type of computer printer used by consumers.	这类印表机是目前消费者最常使用的电脑印表机。
Solid ink printers, also known as phase-change printers, are a type of thermal transfer printer.	固体墨水印表机，别名为相位变更 (phase-change) 印表机，为使用热传导技术的印表机类别。
They use solid sticks of CMYK-coloured ink, similar in consistency to candle wax, which are melted and fed into a piezo crystal operated print-head.	这类印表机会使用标准四色 (CMYK) 固体墨条，墨条的质地类似蜡烛，会遇热熔化并滴入由压电晶体操控的列印头。
The printhead sprays the ink on a rotating, oil coated drum.	列印头会将墨水洒在不停旋转且抹上一层油质的鼓面上。
The paper then passes over the print drum, at which time the image is immediately transferred, or transfixed, to the page.	接着纸张会通过列印鼓轮，图像就会立即转印到纸上。
Solid ink printers are most commonly used as colour office printers, and are excellent at printing on transparencies and other non-porous media.	固体墨水印表机最常用来当作办公室内的彩色印表机，并且对于透明投影片或其他不会渗漏的媒介物质有绝佳的列印效果。
Solid ink printers can produce excellent results.	固体墨水印表机能够列印出效果绝佳的成品。
Acquisition and operating costs are similar to laser printers.	购置成本和操作费用与雷射印表机不相上下。
Drawbacks of the technology include high energy consumption and long warm-up times from a cold state.	这项技术的缺点包括了高耗能及需要相当长的暖机时间。
Also, some users complain that the resulting prints are difficult to write on, as the wax tends to repel inks from pens, and are difficult to feed through automatic document feeders, but these traits have been significantly reduced in later models.	此外，有些使用者会抱怨说列印出来的成品很难用笔在上面书写，因为表层的墨蜡会排斥笔写出来的墨水，而且也难以送入自动送稿机。不过这些特性都在后来的机型中有显著改善。
In addition, this type of printer is only available from one manufacturer, Xerox, manufactured as part of their Xerox Phaser office printer line.	除此之外，全球仅剩下全录公司 (Xerox) 在制造这类印表机，属于公司旗下 Xerox Phaser 事务机产线的一部分。
Previously, solid ink printers were manufactured by Tektronix, but Tek sold the printing business to Xerox in 2001.	在此之前，固体墨水印表机都是由太克公司 (Tektronix) 生产制造，不过太克公司已经于 2001 年将印表机事业部门出售给全录公司。
A dye-sublimation printer (or dye-sub printer) is a printer which employs a printing process that uses heat to transfer dye to a medium such as a plastic card, paper or canvas.	热升华印表机 (或称为热转印机) 为运用热能将染料转印到塑胶卡片、纸张或画布上的印表机。
The process is usually to lay one colour at a time using a ribbon that has colour panels.	这过程通常会使用上面附有调色板的色带，一次只会印上一种颜色。
Dye-sub printers are intended primarily for high-quality colour applications, including colour photography; and are less well-suited for text.	热转印机主要应用在高画质的彩色印刷上 (包含彩色照片)，较不适合用来转印文字。
While once the province of high-end print shops, dye-sublimation printers are now increasingly used as dedicated consumer photo printers.	这类印表机曾是高档印刷商行的专属设备，如今逐渐成为专门用来转印顾客照片的印表机。
Thermal printers work by selectively heating regions of special heat-sensitive paper.	热感式印表机会选择性加热特殊感热纸的不同区块。
Monochrome thermal printers are used in cash registers, ATMs, gasoline dispensers and some older inexpensive fax machines.	单色热感式印表机会运用在收银机、自动提款机、加油机和某些老旧的廉价传真机上。
Colours can be achieved with special papers and different temperatures and heating rates for different colours; these coloured sheets are not required in black-and-white output.	使用特殊的感热纸及不同的温度和加热速率可列印出彩色图样。不过黑白输出机台并不需要使用这些彩色感热纸。
One example is Zink (a portmanteau of "zero ink").	Zink 技术 (「零墨水」(zero ink) 的简写代称) 为其中一个范例。
The following technologies are either obsolete, or limited to special applications though most were, at one time, in widespread use.	下列技术均曾经广泛使用过，但如今大多不是已经过时就是仅限于特殊应用。
Impact printers rely on a forcible impact to transfer ink to the media.	撞击式印表机是靠强烈的撞击力道将墨水转印到媒介物质上。
The impact printer uses a print head that either hits the surface of the ink ribbon, pressing the ink ribbon against the paper (similar to the action of a typewriter), or, less commonly, hits the back of the paper, pressing the paper against the ink ribbon (the IBM 1403 for example).	撞击式印表机会使用列印头来敲击墨水色带的表面，将色带按压在纸上 (类似打字机的打印动作)，或是 (但这比较不常见) 敲击纸张背面，将纸按压在色带上 (例如 IBM 的 1403 型印表机就是如此)。
All but the dot matrix printer rely on the use of fully formed characters, letterforms that represent each of the characters that the printer was capable of printing.	在所有类型的印表机中，只有点阵式印表机需要使用完整字元，每一个字元都必须为印表机能够列印出来的字形样式。
In addition, most of these printers were limited to monochrome, or sometimes two-color, printing in a single typeface at one time, although bolding and underlining of text could be done by "overstriking", that is, printing two or more impressions either in the same character position or slightly offset.	除此之外，这类印表机大多数都局限于单色 (有时可以是双色)，而且一次只能列印单一字体。不过粗体和底线倒是可以藉由「重复撞击」列印出来，也就是在同样的字元位置或是略为偏移的位置压印两次以上。
Impact printers varieties include typewriter-derived printers, teletypewriter-derived printers, daisywheel printers, dot matrix printers and line printers.	撞击式印表机的各类机型包括了打字印表机、电传打字印表机、菊轮印表机、点阵式印表机以及行式印表机。
Dot matrix printers remain in common use in businesses where multi-part forms are printed.	点阵式印表机至今仍常见于商务场合，负责列印多合一表单。
An overview of impact printing contains a detailed description of many of the technologies used.	概观撞击列印技术，其中囊括了许多所用技术的详尽描述。
Several different computer printers were simply computer-controllable versions of existing electric typewriters.	有几款不同的电脑印表机其实只是可透过电脑操控的现代电子打字机。
The Friden Flexowriter and IBM Selectric-based printers were the most-common examples.	Friden Flexowriter 电传印表机和 IBM 电动打字印表机为当时最常见的两个例子。
The Flexowriter printed with a conventional typebar mechanism while the Selectric used IBM's well-known "golf ball" printing mechanism.	Flexowriter 印表机是透过传统的打字连动杆机械结构来进行列印，电动打字印表机则使用 IBM 颇负盛名的「高尔夫球」机械列印结构。
In either case, the letter form then struck a ribbon which was pressed against the paper, printing one character at a time.	两者都是以字体敲击色带并按压到纸上，一次压印一个字元。
The maximum speed of the Selectric printer (the faster of the two) was 15.5 characters per second.	电动打字印表机的最高速度 (两者间较快的一款) 为每秒列印 15.5 个字元。
The common teleprinter could easily be interfaced to the computer and became very popular except for those computers manufactured by IBM.	常见的电传印表机除了由 IBM 制造的电脑之外，也能轻松连接其他电脑介面，十分受欢迎。
Some models used a "typebox" that was positioned, in the X- and Y-axes, by a mechanism and the selected letter form was struck by a hammer.	有些机型会使用位于 X 轴和 Y 轴之间的固定式「打字盒」，其机械运作方式为用槌子敲击所选取的字体。
Others used a type cylinder in a similar way as the Selectric typewriters used their type ball.	其他机型则会使用打字圆筒，使用方式近似于电子打字机在用打字球。
In either case, the letter form then struck a ribbon to print the letterform.	两者都是以字体去敲击色带，进而将字体印上去。
Most teleprinters operated at ten characters per second although a few achieved 15 CPS.	大多数的电传印表机的操作速度可达到每秒 10 个字元，不过也有少数机型达到每秒 15 个字元。
Daisy wheel printers operate in much the same fashion as a typewriter.	菊轮印表机的运作方式几乎和打字机一模一样。
A hammer strikes a wheel with petals, the "daisy wheel", each petal containing a letter form at its tip.	会有一支槌子负责敲击由诸多瓣片组成的「菊轮」，每一片瓣片的尖端都有一个字母。
The letter form strikes a ribbon of ink, depositing the ink on the page and thus printing a character.	字体会敲击墨水色带，在纸上留下墨迹，进而将字元列印出来。
By rotating the daisy wheel, different characters are selected for printing.	转动菊轮既可挑选不同的字元来进行列印。
These printers were also referred to as letter-quality printers because they could produce text which was as clear and crisp as a typewriter.	这类印表机因为能够列印出如打字机般清晰俐落的文字，所以也有「铅字品质印表机」之称。
The fastest letter-quality printers printed at 30 characters per second.	速度最快的铅字品质印表机可达到每秒列印 30 个字元。
Liquid ink electrostatic printers use a chemical coated paper, which is charged by the print head according to the image of the document.	液体墨水静电印表机会使用涂上一层化学物质的影印纸，然后根据文件图像由列印头释放电荷。
The paper is passed near a pool of liquid ink with the opposite charge.	接着纸张会通过带着相反电荷的液体墨水池附近。
The charged areas of the paper attract the ink and thus form the image.	于是纸上附带着电荷的区域就会吸附墨水，进而呈现出图像。
This process was developed from the process of electrostatic copying.	这个列印程序是参考静电复印的过程所发展出来。
Color reproduction is very accurate, and because there is no heating the scale distortion is less than ±0.1%.	色彩还原十分精准，而且因为过程不会产生热度，所以比例失真的情形会在 ±0.1% 之间。
(All laser printers have an accuracy of ±1%.)	(所有雷射印表机的精准度都在 ±1% 之间。)
Worldwide, most survey offices used this printer before color inkjet plotters become popular.	彩色喷墨绘图机广受欢迎之前，世界各地大部分的测量处所都曾使用过这款印表机。
Liquid ink electrostatic printers were mostly available in 36 to 54 inches (910 to 1,370 mm) width and also 6 color printing.	液体墨水静电印表机的宽度大多落在 36 至 54 英吋 (910 至 1,370 公厘) 之间，而且提供 6 色列印。
These were also used to print large billboards.	这类印表机以前也会用来列印大型广告看板。
It was first introduced by Versatec, which was later bought by Xerox.	当年首台静电印表机是由 Versatec 正式推出，后来由全录公司收购。
3M also used to make these printers.	3M 公司也曾经制作过这类印表机。
Shampoo (/ʃæmˈpuː/) is a hair care product, typically in the form of a viscous liquid, that is used for cleaning hair.	洗发精 (Shampoo，发音为：/ʃæmˈpuː/) 为护发产品，一般而言会是黏稠液状，可用来清洁头发。
Less commonly, shampoo is available in bar form, like a bar of soap.	洗发精偶尔会以棒状造型提供使用，就像是一条棒状肥皂。
Shampoo is used by applying it to wet hair, massaging the product into the hair, and then rinsing it out.	使用洗发精时，会先抹在濡湿的头发上，接着透过按摩让头发吸收进去，最后再用水冲干净。
Some users may follow a shampooing with the use of hair conditioner.	有些使用者会在用完洗发精后抹上护发乳。
The typical reason of using shampoo is to remove the unwanted build-up of sebum in the hair without stripping out so much as to make hair unmanageable.	一般而言，洗发精是用来清除头发上积累的皮脂，但并不会剥除掉过多皮脂而导致头发难以梳理。
Shampoo is generally made by combining a surfactant, most often sodium lauryl sulfate or sodium laureth sulfate, with a co-surfactant, most often cocamidopropyl betaine in water.	一般而言，洗发精会将界面活性剂 (最常见的是月桂醇聚醚硫酸钠 (sodium lauryl sulfate) 或肉桂醇聚醚硫酸钠 (sodium laureth sulfate)) 及共界面活性剂 (最常见的是椰油醯胺丙基甜菜碱 (cocamidopropyl betaine)) 和水结合在一起。
The sulphate ingredient acts as a surfactant, essentially heavy duty soap that makes it easier to trap oil and grease.	其中硫酸盐成分的作用为界面活性剂，基本上就像是强力肥皂，能轻松将油脂包覆住。
Specialty shampoos are marketed to people with dandruff, color-treated hair, gluten or wheat allergies, an interest in using an organic product, and infants and young children ("baby shampoo" is less irritating).	市面上有各种专门的洗发精，可提供给有头皮屑、染发、对于麸质或小麦过敏、喜欢使用有机产品以及婴幼儿等不同族群的使用者 (「婴儿洗发精」比较不会刺激皮肤)。
There are also shampoos intended for animals that may contain insecticides or other medications to treat skin conditions or parasite infestations such as fleas.	此外还有专供动物使用的洗发精，可能会包含杀虫配方或是用来因应其他皮肤状况或防止跳蚤等寄生虫感染的药剂。
The word shampoo entered the English language from the Indian subcontinent during the colonial era.	「shampoo」一词是在殖民年代从印度次大陆传入英文语境。
It dates to 1762 and is derived from Hindi chāmpo (चाँपो [tʃãːpoː]), itself derived from the Sanskrit root chapati (चपति), which means to press, knead, soothe.	起源可追溯至 1762 年，从印度文中的「chāmpo (चाँपो [tʃãːpoː])」衍生而来。其字根源为梵文中的「chapati (चपति)」，有按压、搓揉及舒缓之意。
In the Indian subcontinent, a variety of herbs and their extracts have been used as shampoos since ancient times.	印度次大陆上的居民从远古时代就开始把各式各样的草本植物及其萃取物拿来当成洗发精使用。
A very effective early shampoo was made by boiling Sapindus with dried Indian gooseberry (amla) and a selection of other herbs, using the strained extract.	早年有一种十分有效的洗发精是将无患子 (Sapindus)、印度油甘果干 (amla) 及其他精选的草本植物一同放入滚水熬煮，接着把残渣滤掉，取其萃取液来使用。
Sapindus, also known as soapberries or soapnuts, a tropical tree widespread in India, is called ksuna (Sanskrit: क्षुण) in ancient Indian texts and its fruit pulp contains saponins which are a natural surfactant.	无患子 (别名皂浆果或肥皂果) 为印度境内广泛栽植的热带树种。在古印度文中，无患子被称为「ksuna (梵文：क्षुण)」，而且它的果肉含有皂素 (saponins)，为天然的界面活性剂。
The extract of soapberries creates a lather which Indian texts called phenaka (Sanskrit: फेनक).	从皂浆果中提取出来的物质会产生一种皂沫，在印度文中称为 「phenaka (梵文：फेनक)」。
It leaves the hair soft, shiny and manageable.	这种皂沫可以让发质柔软、有亮泽且容易梳理。
Other products used for hair cleansing were shikakai (Acacia concinna), hibiscus flowers, ritha (Sapindus mukorossi) and arappu (Albizzia amara).	其他可以用来洗净头发的天然产物还有小合欢 (印度文：shikakai/英文：Acacia concinna)、木槿花 (hibiscus flower)、印度无患子 (印度文：ritha/英文：Sapindus mukorossi) 以及阿拉玛合欢 (印度文：arappu/英文：Albizzia amara)。
Guru Nanak, the founder and the first Guru of Sikhism, made references to soapberry tree and soap in the 16th century.	创立锡克教 (Sikhism) 的首任宗师那纳克 (Guru Nanak) 曾在十六世纪时提到皂浆果树以及肥皂。
Cleansing with hair and body massage (champu) during one's daily bath was an indulgence of early colonial traders in India.	对于早年居住于印度的殖民地商人而言，每天能在洗澡时使用按摩露 (champu) 洗净头发和身体，是莫大的享受。
When they returned to Europe, they introduced the newly learned habits, including the hair treatment they called shampoo.	当他们返回欧洲时，也将这些新嗜好一起带回去，包括了他们称之为「shampoo」的洗发用品。
Sake Dean Mahomed, an Indian traveller, surgeon, and entrepreneur, is credited with introducing the practice of champooi or "shampooing" to Britain.	身兼外科医师和企业家的印度旅行家 Sake Dean Mahomed 被公认为将「按摩洁净」(champooi 或 shampooing) 实际引进英国的第一人。
In 1814, Mahomed, with his Irish wife Jane Daly, opened the first commercial "shampooing" vapour masseur bath in England, in Brighton.	1814 年，Mahomed 和他的爱尔兰裔妻子 Jane Daly 在英格兰开设了第一家「按摩洁净」(shampooing) 蒸气舒压商业澡堂。
He described the treatment in a local paper as "The Indian Medicated Vapour Bath (type of Turkish bath), a cure to many diseases and giving full relief when everything fails; particularly Rheumatic and paralytic, gout, stiff joints, old sprains, lame legs, aches and pains in the joints".	他在地方报纸上如此描述整体疗程：「印度蒸气药浴 (土耳其浴的其中一种)，可疗愈多种疾病，并能彻底舒缓遭受沉痛打击的身心灵。对于风湿病、肢体麻痹、痛风、关节僵硬、陈旧扭伤、瘸腿、关节疼痛等症状效果尤佳。」
During the early stages of shampoo in Europe, English hair stylists boiled shaved soap in water and added herbs to give the hair shine and fragrance.	在欧洲刚开始出现洗发精的时候，英国的发型设计师会将肥皂碎屑放在水里煮，再加入香草植物来让头发既有亮泽又芳香怡人。
Commercially made shampoo was available from the turn of the 20th century.	直到进入二十世纪的时候才出现商业生产的洗发精。
A 1914 advertisement for Canthrox Shampoo in American Magazine showed young women at camp washing their hair with Canthrox in a lake; magazine advertisements in 1914 by Rexall featured Harmony Hair Beautifier and Shampoo.	Canthrox 洗发精于 1914 年在《美国杂志》(American Magazine) 上刊登的广告中，绘制了一群宿营湖畔的年轻女性在湖中以 Canthrox 洗发精洗头发的画面。 Rexall 公司于 1914 年所刊登的杂志广告中则重点推荐了 Harmony Hair Beautifier 及同名的洗发精产品。
In 1927, liquid shampoo was invented by German inventor Hans Schwarzkopf in Berlin, whose name created a shampoo brand sold in Europe.	1927 年，德国发明家 Hans Schwarzkopf 在柏林发明了液体洗发精，他的名字也成为一款在欧洲销售洗发精的品牌名称。
Originally, soap and shampoo were very similar products; both containing the same naturally derived surfactants, a type of detergent.	一开始，肥皂和洗发精是十分相近的产品。两者都含有同样的天然界面活性剂，而且都具有洗净能力。
Modern shampoo as it is known today was first introduced in the 1930s with Drene, the first shampoo using synthetic surfactants instead of soap.	如今常见的现代洗发精首见于 1930 年代推出的 Drene 洗发精，这是史上第一款使用合成界面活性剂而非皂素的洗发精。
Early shampoos used in Indonesia were made from the husk and straw (merang) of rice.	早年在印尼使用的洗发精是用玉米壳和稻秆 (merang) 制成。
The husks and straws were burned into ash, and the ashes (which have alkaline properties) are mixed with water to form lather.	先将玉米壳和稻秆烧成灰，再将这些 (带碱性的) 灰烬混入水中产生泡沫。
The ashes and lather were scrubbed into the hair and rinsed out, leaving the hair clean, but very dry.	接着用这些灰烬和泡沫来刷洗头发，再用水冲掉。头发是洗干净了，但是会非常干。
Afterwards, coconut oil was applied to the hair in order to moisturize it.	洗完头发之后，会再抹上一层椰子油来润泽头发。
Certain Native American tribes used extracts from North American plants as hair shampoo; for example the Costanoans of present-day coastal California used extracts from the coastal woodfern, Dryopteris expansa,	某些美洲原住民族会使用从北美地区植物提取出来的物质来当成洗发精，例如居住在现今加州沿岸的柯斯塔诺族人 (Costanoan) 就曾从岸边的广布鳞毛蕨 (Dryopteris expansa) 提取用来洗发的物质。
Before quinoa can be eaten the saponin must be washed out from the grain prior to cooking.	藜麦表皮上的皂苷必须先冲洗干净，才能拿来烹煮食用。
Pre-Columbian Andean civilizations used this soapy by-product as a shampoo.	前哥伦布时期的安地斯民族会将这项皂素副产品来当成洗发精使用。
In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) mandates that shampoo containers accurately list ingredients on the products container.	美国的食品药物管理局 (FDA) 下令要求所有洗发精都必须在包装瓶上确实列出所有成分。
The government further regulates what shampoo manufacturers can and cannot claim as any associated benefit.	政府进一步规范洗发精制造商能否主张的相关利益内容。
Shampoo producers often use these regulations to challenge marketing claims made by competitors, helping to enforce these regulations.	洗发精制造商通常会使用这些规范来质疑同业的行销用语，进而协助加强这些规范的效力。
While the claims may be substantiated, however, the testing methods and details of such claims are not as straightforward.	这些行销用语虽然都可能有经过证实，然而其检测方式和详细内容都不会多直截了当。
For example, many products are purported to protect hair from damage due to ultraviolet radiation.	例如有许多产品声称能够保护头发免于紫外线危害。
While the ingredient responsible for this protection does block UV, it is not often present in a high enough concentration to be effective.	尽管负责保护头发的成分的确能抗阻紫外线，该成分的浓度却往往达不到能提供功效的程度。 。
The North American Hair Research Society has a program to certify functional claims based on third-party testing.	北美毛发研究协会 (North American Hair Research Society) 有个计画能够经邀请第三方来透过检测证实这些功能性用语。
Shampoos made for treating medical conditions such as dandruff or itchy scalp are regulated as OTC drugs in the US marketplace.	专门用来疗治头皮屑或头皮痒的洗发精都会在美国市场列入成药规范。
In the European Union, there is a requirement for the anti-dandruff claim to be substantiated as with any other advertising claim, but it is not considered to be a medical problem.	欧盟地区规定，凡是有抗头皮屑的广告用语都必须跟其他用语一同经过证实，但欧盟并不认为这属于医疗问题。
A number of contact allergens are used as ingredients in shampoos, and contact allergy caused by shampoos is well known.	有些接触性过敏原会用来制造洗发精，由洗发精造成的接触性过敏症状也算是众所皆知。
Patch testing can identify ingredients to which patients are allergic, after which a physician can help the patient find a shampoo that is free of the ingredient to which they are allergic.	贴布测试可以识别出哪些患者会对那些成分过敏，接着医生就能协助患者找到不含过敏成分的洗发精。
The US bans 11 ingredients from shampoos, Canada bans 587, and the EU bans 1328.	美国禁用了 11 项洗发精成分，加拿大禁了 587 项，欧盟则禁了 1,328 项，
Cosmetic companies have developed shampoos specifically for those who have dandruff.	化妆品公司有特别针对那些有头皮屑的客人研发出洗发精。
These contain fungicides such as ketoconazole, zinc pyrithione and selenium disulfide, which reduce loose dander by killing fungi like Malassezia furfur.	这些洗发精都内含杀真菌剂 (如酮康唑 (ketoconazole)、吡硫鎓锌 (zinc pyrithione) 和二硫化硒 (selenium disulfide))，可透过杀死如秕糠马拉癣菌 (Malassezia furfur) 之类的真菌来减少皮屑产生。
Coal tar and salicylate derivatives are often used as well.	焦油 (coal tar) 和水杨酸 (salicylate) 衍生物也都会经常拿来使用。
Alternatives to medicated shampoos are available for people who wish to avoid synthetic fungicides.	市面上也有药用洗发精的替代款式，提供给不想要使用合成杀真菌剂的民众选购，
Such shampoos often use tea tree oil, essential oils or herbal extracts.	这类洗发精通常会使用茶树精油、各类天然精油或是草本精华。
Many companies have also developed color-protection shampoos suitable for colored hair; some of these shampoos contain gentle cleansers according to their manufacturers.	有许多公司也研发出护色洗发精，适用于有染色的头发。这类洗发精有一部分含有温和的洗洁成分，依其制造商而有所不同。
They have the advantage of being spill-proof.	这类洗发产品的优点在于不会溢漏出来。
They are easy to apply; one may simply rub the bar over wet hair, and work the soaped hair into a low lather.	使用起来也很方便：直接将条块放在濡湿的头发上摩擦，直到头发都沾满了些许泡沫即可。
Stiff, non-pourable clear gels to be squeezed from a tube were once popular forms of shampoo, and can be produced by increasing a shampoo's viscosity.	质地黏稠，只能从软管中挤出来而无法倒出来的洁发凝露，曾经一度成为广受欢迎的洗发精类型，可透过将洗发精的黏稠度拉高而制造出来。
This type of shampoo cannot be spilled, but unlike a solid, it can still be lost down the drain by sliding off wet skin or hair.	这类洗发产品不会溢漏出来，却也并非固体，仍然会沿着濡湿的头发或肌肤滑落到排水孔中。
Shampoos in the form of pastes or creams were formerly marketed in jars or tubes.	做成膏状或乳霜状的洗发乳，之前曾以罐装或管装形式上市贩售。
The contents were wet but not completely dissolved.	其内容物含有一定的湿润度，但并未完全溶解。
They would apply faster than solids and dissolve quickly.	可以比固体洗发产品更快抹到头发上，并快速溶解于水。
Antibacterial shampoos are often used in veterinary medicine for various conditions, as well as in humans before some surgical procedures.	抗菌洗发精通常会让兽医用来应对各种医药需求，以及供人类在进行某些手术前使用。
Closely associated with environmentalism, the "no poo" movement consists of people rejecting the societal norm of frequent shampoo use.	与环保主义密切相关的「No-Poo」运动是由一群拒绝接受将经常使用洗发精当成社会规范的人士所推动。
Some adherents of the no poo movement use baking soda or vinegar to wash their hair, while others use diluted honey.	该运动的追随者中有一些人会使用小苏打粉或是醋来洗自己的头发，还有另一群人会使用稀释过后的蜂蜜。
Other people use nothing, rinsing their hair only with conditioner.	其他人则什么也不用，只使用护发乳来清洗自己的头发。
In the 1970s, ads featuring Farrah Fawcett and Christie Brinkley asserted that it was unhealthy not to shampoo several times a week.	1970 年代，由 Farrah Fawcett 和 Christie Brinkley 主演的广告声称一周不用洗发精洗个几次头，头发就不会健康。
This mindset is reinforced by the greasy feeling of the scalp after a day or two of not shampooing.	头皮在一天或两天不用洗发精洗头之后所产生的油腻感，进一步强化了这种思维。
Using shampoo every day removes sebum, the oil produced by the scalp.	每天使用洗发精可清除皮脂，也就是头皮分泌出来的油脂。
This causes the sebaceous glands to produce oil at a higher rate, to compensate for what is lost during shampooing.	如此一来，皮脂腺会为了补充在洗发过程中失去的油脂而加快分泌速率。
According to Michelle Hanjani, a dermatologist at Columbia University, a gradual reduction in shampoo use will cause the sebum glands to produce at a slower rate, resulting in less grease in the scalp.	据哥伦比亚大学的皮肤科医师 Michelle Hanjani 指出，逐步减少使用洗发精会有助于让皮脂腺减缓分泌速率，进而减少头皮的油腻感。
Although this approach might seem unappealing to some individuals, many people try alternate shampooing techniques like baking soda and vinegar in order to avoid ingredients used in many shampoos that make hair greasy over time.	尽管这项方法对于某些人来说不具吸引力，但还是有许多人会为了避免接触到在多款洗发精中会让头发逐渐变油的成分，尝试使用其他方法来取代洗发精，好比说使用小苏打粉和醋。
A railway platform is an area alongside a railway track providing convenient access to trains.	铁路月台为沿着铁路轨道兴建且方便让乘客搭车的建筑区域。
Almost all stations have some form of platform, with larger stations having multiple platforms.	几乎所有车站都设有某种形式的月台，规模较大的车站里则会有多条月台。
The world's longest station platform is at Gorakhpur Junction in India at 1,355.40 metres (4,446.9 ft).	世界上最长的车站月台位于印度的戈勒喀布尔联合车站 (Gorakhpur Junction)，长达 1,355.40 公尺 (约 4,446.9 英尺)。
The Appalachian Trail station in the United States, at the other extreme, has a platform which is only long enough for a single bench.	美国的阿帕拉契登山步道 (Appalachian Trail) 车站则是另一个极端—月台长度仅容得下一张长椅。
Among some United States train conductors the word "platform" has entered usage as a verb meaning "to berth at a station", as in the announcement: "The last two cars of this train will not platform at East Rockaway".	在某些美国的列车调度员口中，会将「platform」一词会当成动词，意思是「在车站停靠」，好比这段广播词：「本次列车的最后两节车厢将不会停靠东洛克威站」(The last two cars of this train will not platform at East Rockaway)。
The most basic form of platform consists of an area at the same level as the track, usually resulting in a fairly large height difference between the platform and the train floor.	最基本的月台形式是由一个和轨道高度相当的区域所构成，往往导致月台和车厢地板之间有相当大的高度落差。
This would often not be considered a true platform.	人们通常不会将这种月台当成真正的月台。
The more traditional platform is elevated relative to the track but often lower than the train floor, although ideally they should be at the same level.	更传统的月台形式会比轨道高出一些，但通常会比车厢地板矮一点，尽管在理想状态下，这两者的高度应该要一致。
Occasionally the platform is higher than the train floor, where a train with a low floor serves a station built for trains with a high floor, for example at the Dutch stations of the DB Regionalbahn Westfalen (see Enschede).	偶尔会在低地板车厢来到适用于高地板车厢的月台时，出现月台比车厢地板还高的情形，例如德铁区域铁路西伐利亚线 (DB Regionalbahn Westfalen) 位于荷兰境内的车站 (请参阅恩斯赫德 (Enschede) 相关内容)。
On the London Underground some stations are served by both District line and Piccadilly line trains, and the Piccadilly trains have lower floors.	伦敦地铁有部分车站为区域线 (District line) 和皮卡迪利线 (Piccadilly line) 共线营运，其中皮卡迪利线的列车车厢地板较低。
A tram stop is often in the middle of the street; usually it has as a platform a refuge area of a similar height to that of the sidewalk (e.g. 100 mm (3.9 in)), and sometimes has no platform.	轻轨车站通常会位于街道中央，且设有和人行道高度相当的候车月台 (比如 100 公厘 (3.9 英吋)，也有些时候不会设置月台。
The latter requires extra care by passengers and other traffic to avoid accidents.	为避免发生意外，没有月台的车站会需要特别关注乘客和其他交通工具动向。
Both types of tram stops can be seen in the tram networks of Melbourne and Toronto.	在墨尔本和多伦多的轻轨路网中，这两种车站都会出现。
Sometimes a tram stop is served by ordinary trams with rather low floors and metro-like light rail vehicles with higher floors, and the tram stop has a dual-height platform, as in Amstelveen, Netherlands.	有时候轻轨车站会有地板较低的普通轻轨电车和像地铁般地板较高的轻轨列车共同停靠，因而设置了双重高度月台，比如荷兰阿姆斯多芬市的轻轨系统。
A train station may be served by heavy-rail and light-rail vehicles with lower floors and have a dual- height platform, as on the RijnGouweLijn in the Netherlands.	列车车站也可能会同时提供重轨列车和轻轨列车停靠，因而设置双重高度月台，比如荷兰的 RijnGouweLijn 轨道系统。
Platform types include the bay platform, side platform (also called through platform), split platform and island platform.	月台类型包括有港湾式月台、侧式月台 (或穿越式月台)、分离式月台和岛式月台。
A bay platform is one at which the track terminates, i.e. a dead-end or siding.	港湾式月台会设置于轨道终点 (也就是轨道前方无路或有壁板遮挡)。
Trains serving a bay platform must reverse in or out.	停靠港湾式月台的列车必须反向进出。
A side platform is the more usual type, alongside tracks where the train arrives from one end and leaves towards the other.	侧式月台是较为常见的类型，沿着轨道而建，列车会从月台一端进站，再往月台的另一端离站。
An island platform has through platforms on both sides; it may be indented on one or both ends, with bay platforms.	岛式月台设有完整的双侧月台，其中一侧或两侧均可内缩改建成港湾式月台
To reach an island platform there may be a bridge, a tunnel, or a level crossing.	为方便乘客前往岛式月台，站内可能会设有天桥、地下道或是人行穿越道。
A variant on the side platform is the spanish solution which has platforms on both sides of a single through track.	有一种侧式月台称为西班牙式月台，会在一条直穿而过的轨道两侧设置月台。
Some of the station facilities are often located on the platforms.	月台上通常会有一些车站设施。
Where the platforms are not adjacent to a station building, often some form of shelter or waiting room is provided, and employee cabins may also be present.	通常在并未邻接车站大楼的月台上会设有某种形式的遮蔽空间或候车室，也有可能会出现员工休息室。
The weather protection offered varies greatly, from little more than a roof with open sides, to a closed room with heating or air-conditioning.	月台上遮风挡雨的设施可谓五花八门，从上有往外延伸的遮棚但两侧开放的候车亭到安装了暖气或冷气的密闭候车室，各具特色。
There may be benches, lighting, ticket counters, drinking fountains, shops, trash boxes, and static timetables or dynamic displays with information about the next train.	月台上可能会有长椅、照明设备、售票机、饮水机、店铺、垃圾桶，以及负责提供下班列车资讯的静态时刻表或动态显示萤幕。
There are often loudspeakers as part of a public address (PA) system.	通常也会架设公共广播系统 (PA) 的播音喇叭。
The PA system is often used where dynamic timetables or electronic displays are not present.	广播 (PA) 系统通常会在没有动态时刻表或电子显示看板的地方使用。
A variety of information is presented, including destinations and times (for all trains, or only the more important long-distance trains), delays, cancellations, platform changes, changes in routes and destinations, the number of carriages in the train and the location of first class or luggage compartments, and supplementary fee or reservation requirements.	系统会提供各式各样的资讯，包括列车的目的地和发车时刻 (各级列车或仅提供较为重要的长途列车)、车次延迟、取消、月台变更、路线和目的地变更、列车车厢数量和头等舱或行李车厢的位置， 以及附加费用或预先划位需求。
Some metro stations have platform screen doors between the platforms and the tracks.	有些地铁车站在月台和轨道之间设有月台门。
They provide more safety, and they allow the heating or air conditioning in the station to be separated from the ventilation in the tunnel, thus being more efficient and effective.	这些月台门能让环境更安全，也可将站内的暖气或冷气与隧道内的通风隔开来，借此强化节能减碳和运转效能。
They have been installed in most stations of the Singapore MRT and the Hong Kong MTR, and stations on the Jubilee Line Extension in London.	新加坡地铁和香港地铁的大部分车站以及伦敦银禧线延伸段的各车站都安装了月台门。
Platforms should be sloped upwards slightly towards the platform edge to prevent wheeled objects such as trolleys, prams and wheelchairs from rolling away and into the path of the train.	月台边缘应该要稍微上扬，避免如手推车、婴儿车和轮椅等装有轮子的物品滑落到列车轨道上。
Many platforms have a cavity underneath an overhanging edge so that people who may fall off the platform can seek shelter from incoming trains.	有许多月台在突出的边缘下方留有空间，让不慎从月台掉下去的人能够寻求避难，躲过正在进站的列车。
A dangerous practice is sitting on the edge of the platform, which requires withdrawing the legs fast enough when a train arrives.	坐在月台边缘十分危险，需要在列车抵达时尽快将双腿抬起来才行。
In high-speed rail, passing trains are a significant safety problem as the safe distance from the platform edge increases with the speed of the passing train.	在高速铁路上过站不停的列车是重要的安全问题。过站列车的速度越快，距离月台边缘的安全距离也会随之增加。
A study done by the United States Department of Transportation in 1999 found that trains passing station platforms at speeds of 240 kilometres per hour (150 mph) can pose safety concerns to passengers on the platforms who are 2 metres (6.6 ft) away from the edge due to the aerodynamic effects created by pressure and induced airflow with speeds of 64 kilometres per hour (40 mph) to 95 kilometres per hour (59 mph) depending on the train body aerodynamic designs.	有一份美国运输部在 1999 年完成的研究发现，以时速 240 公里 (150 mph) 过站的列车，其气流压力所导致的空气动力学效应会对距离月台边缘 2 公尺 (6.6 英尺) 的乘造成安全疑虑，并产生速度达到每小时 64 公里 (40 mph) 至每小时 95 公里 (59 mph) 的气流，其强弱取决于列车车体的空气动力学设计。
Additionally, the airflow can cause debris to be blown out to the waiting passengers.	此外，气流会将尘土碎石吹向候车乘客。
If the passengers stand closer at 1 metre (3.3 ft), the risk increases with airflow that can reach speeds of 79 kilometres per hour (49 mph) to 116 kilometres per hour (72 mph).	如果乘客站的位置往前移到 1 公尺处 (3.3 英尺)，那么会造成风险的气流速度则为每小时 79 公里 (49 mph) 至每小时 116 公里 (72 mph)。
In United Kingdom, a guideline for platform safety specifies that for the platforms with train passing speeds between 160 kilometres per hour (99 mph) and 200 kilometres per hour (120 mph), there should be a yellow-line buffer zone of 1.5 metres (4.9 ft) and other warning signs.	英国的候车月台安全规章中规定，凡列车通过速度介于每小时 160 公里 (99 mph) 至每小时 200 公里 (120 mph) 之间的候车月台，均应设有宽度达 1.5 公尺 (约 4.9 英尺) 的黄线缓冲区及其他警告标示。
If trains can pass at speeds higher than 200 kilometres per hour (120 mph), the platforms should be inaccessible to passengers unless there are waiting rooms or screened areas to provide protection.	若列车通过速度超过每小时 200 公里 (120 mph)，除非有设置候车室或设有安全屏障的区域，否则应禁止乘客进入该月台空间。
The European Union has a regulation for platforms that are close to tracks with train passing speeds of 250 kilometres per hour (160 mph) or more should not be accessible to passengers unless there is a lower speed limit for trains that intend to stop at the station or there are barriers to limit access.	据欧盟规范，若邻近轨道上的列车通过速度达到每小时 250 公里 (160 mph) 以上，除非针对会在该站停靠的列车有较低的时速限制或是设有限制通行范围的障碍物，否则应禁止乘客进入该月台空间。
Platforms usually have some form of warnings or measures to keep passengers away from the tracks.	月台上通常会设有某种形式的警告标示或安全措施，让乘客远离轨道。
The simplest measure is markings near the edge of the platform to demarcate the distance back that passengers should remain.	最简单的措施就是在靠近月台边缘的地方标示出乘客应该保有的安全距离。
Often a special tiled surface is used as well as a painted line, to help blind people using a walking aid, and help in preventing wheelchairs from rolling too near the platform edge.	通常会使用具有特殊表面的月台砖以及画线标示，一方面协助盲人使用导盲手杖，另一方面也有助于防止轮椅来到太靠近月台边缘的位置。
In the US, Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 regulations require a detectable warning strip 24 inches (61 cm) wide, consisting of truncated dome bumps in a visually-contrasting color, for the full length of the platform.	据美国于 1990 年颁布的美国身心障碍人士专法 (Americans with Disabilities Act) 规定，触知警示条的宽度必须为 24 英吋 (约 61 公分)，含有漆上醒目颜色的平顶圆凸，并且长度与月台相等。
Ideally platforms should be straight or slightly convex, so that the guard can see the whole train when preparing to close the doors.	理想的月台形状应为笔直或略有弧度，好让月台警卫在准备关闭车门时能够对列车状况一览无遗。
Platforms that have great curvature have blind spots that create a safety hazard.	弯度大的月台会出现造成安全危害的盲点区块。
Mirrors or closed-circuit cameras may be used in these cases to view the whole platform.	在这种情况下，可使用镜子或监视摄影机来查看月台全景。
Also passenger carriages are straight, so doors will not always open directly onto a curved platform – often a platform gap is present.	此外，由于列车车厢均为笔直设计，所以车门不一定会贴着弯曲的月台开启，时常会出现月台间隙。
Usually such platforms will have warning signs, possibly auditory, such as London Underground's famous phrase "Mind the gap".	通常这类月台会设置警告标示，也有可能会透过语音提醒，比如伦敦地铁著名的警语：「请小心月台间隙」(Mind the gap)。
There may be moveable gap filler sections within the platform, extending once the train has stopped and retracting after the doors have closed.	月台内可能会设有可填补间隙的伸缩踏板，在列车靠站后伸出，然后在车门关闭后缩回。
The New York City Subway employs these at 14th Street–Union Square on the IRT Lexington Avenue Line and at Times Square on the 42nd Street Shuttle, and formerly at the South Ferry outer loop station on the IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line.	纽约地铁如今在位于 IRT 莱辛顿大道线 (IRT Lexington Avenue Line) 上的 14 街-联合广场车站和位于 42 街接驳线 (42nd Street Shuttle) 上的时代广场站均设有伸缩踏板，之前则曾在位于 IRT 百老汇-第七大道线 (IRT Broadway-Seventh Avenue Line) 上的南渡船头外环车站 (South Ferry outer loop station) 设置踏板。
In the UK, recent rules require new platforms to be straight.	英国最近修订的规范明定新建月台必须为笔直外型。
